It’s no secret that I love African history (I have over 30 books specifically on it). I’ve already covered 2 African warrior queens, Amina and Ana Nzinga (you can find them in the Rhymes with Nerdy archives). This time, I’ll highlight a lesser known kingdom from central Africa…

The Kuba Kingdom

Starting sometime in the 16^th century several different peoples from just below of the Sahara, migrated south. They ultimately settled at the bottom edge of the Great Equatorial Forest and the start of the savanna in between the Kasia river – to the east, Sankuru – to the north, and Lulua – to the south, in modern day the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This large group consisted of 18 or 19 different ethnic peoples including – The Ngeende, Kel, Pyaang, Bulang, Bieng, Ilebo, Idiing, Kaam, Ngoombe Kayuweng, Shoowa, Bokila, Maluk, Bushong, Ngongo, and others. Upon their arrival, they came across the Twa. Another people, who were already settled there. Things were civil and the Twa assimilated into the already dense cultural melting pot.

The name, Kuba, originally came from a neighboring kingdom, the Luba. The Kuba referred to themselves as the Bakuba, which translates to, “People of the Throwing Knife.” They spoke Bakuba, a branch of the massive Bantu language tree, consisting of over 200 languages. The other major powers around them were the Kongo and Pende kingdoms, both of whom would prove to be very influential in the formation of the eventual Kuba kingdom.

Initially, they were just a loose confederation of separate villages that shared the same culture. There was no centralized government to speak of. They didn’t become a formally organized kingdom until roughly 1625. Shyaam a-Mbul a Ngoong-Shyaam, turned this cultural composite into a kingdom. It isn’t known where exactly he was from, but he was orphaned early on. A local Kuba queen adopted and raised him as a Bakuba. He left as an adult. Shyaam traveled to the nearby Kongo and Pende kingdoms, studying their cultures and political structures. Upon returning home, he revamped his homeland.

Some of the renovations he brought were: better iron forging techniques, new crops (cassava, maize, tobacco, beans), multi-branch centralized government, professional military and police, annual census, a complex economy, new tax policies, executive councils, trial by jury, merit-based ranking in government jobs, and bureaucracy. All of this was established without a written constitution.

A mesmerizing Kuba design.

The new kingdom was divided into 9 provinces – Kel, Bushong, Ngongo, Coofa, Pyang, Kete, Shoowa, Ngende, and Nsheng. These were in turn divided into smaller counties. The king, Nyim, was always ethnically Bushong and the capital was where the current king had grown up. Each ethnic group was in turn represented in the aristocratic courts. The queen mother was an essential role in the court. She represented the women on a federal level. The line of inheritance was through your mother NOT your father. That included who would be the next king.

The staple of the civilization was weaving, specifically raffia weaving. Raffia was essential for them to survive. Everything was woven from raffia, including the money. That was primarily because of the lack of local metals in the region. The Kuba designs are the most identifiable aspect of the their civilization. Their designs grew more and more complex as time went on. The Kuba design is perfectly symmetrical and asymmetrical at the same time in a beautiful, mesmerizing way. Once you see it, you can always identity it as Kuba in origin. The size and detail of the design on your house was an indicator of your rank in society. These designs were key in the development of Cubism. Picasso was a huge fan and collector of African and specifically Kuba art.

Wood craving and mask making were firmly in second place to weaving. They were equally as intricate and distinctive as the cloth designs. Art in general was highly appreciated and valued. The direction of art was heavily influenced by the Nyim. The most famous case of this was under Nyim Misha mi-Shyaang a-Mbul. He commissioned a new type of sculpture, the ndop. This was a large wooden sculpture of the Nyim. These were made to keep track of the past kings and honor the king. An ibol, personal symbol revealed at a Nyim’s coronation, was always at the forefront. Shyaam the Great’s ndop, prominently featured a mankala board. This represented his cunning, intelligence, and foresight, since mankala requires all 3 qualities. As the kingdom grew stronger, the uniquity of the art grew at a faster pace than rest of society.

Religion was a relatively lesser aspect of society. The creator god, Mfcoom/Bumba the Sky Father, created all and more or less left after that. The main deity worshiped was Woot. He was the first man created by Mfcoom. There were other gods but like Mfcoom, they weren’t that formally worshiped either. The Kuba saw the efforts of humanity more important and relevant than that of the supernatural. Everyone was buried with the items necessary for the afterlife. There was no heaven or hell. If you were good, you became a ghost and reincarnated at some point in the future. If you weren’t, you were stuck in limbo forever. The Nyim was the spiritual leader and head of the sorcerers. In addition, they are the head Ngesh, nature spirit, that bridged the divine with the human. Dogs were seen as messengers of the gods and given special treatment above other animals.

Primarily the regular diet consisted of fish, given the 3 rivers surrounding them. They regulated the fish population with man-made fish farms, that the women would harvest twice a year along with fishing in the rivers. Vegetables made up the other majority. Surrounded by fertile farmland, there was plenty of irrigation from the 3 rivers. Meat was only eaten during the dry season. During the rainy season, both men and women had to maintain the vegetable crops. Farming was much less intensive, the rest of the year.

As with the rest of their contemporaries, they were eventually discovered and colonized. They were one of the last left untouched by Western Europe. In 1892, William Sheppard, an African American Presbyterian missionary, writing about the exploitation of Africans under Belgium’s King Leopold II (That is a story for another day). Sheppard opened the door for the Germans to later colonize the region in 1907. The art regressed and morphed into a more European style but never completely lost its Kuba identity.

Sources

http://www.randafricanart.com/kuba_Ngady_aMwaash.html

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/kuba/hd_kuba.htm

https://africa.uima.uiowa.edu/peoples/show/Kuba

http://econ.columbia.edu/files/econ/content/kuba_final.pdf

http://kwekudee-tripdownmemorylane.blogspot.com/2014/02/kuba-people-most-artistic-and-highly.html

http://kubaafricanart.weebly.com/background.html

http://cool.conservation-us.org/waac/wn/wn08/wn08-1/wn08-102.html

https://museum.gwu.edu/weaving-abstraction-kuba-textiles-and-woven-art-central-africa

http://www.zyama.com/kuba/

Every 4 years, the very best of the very best of the very best in the wide world of sports compete for the gold. Nearly every nation is represented in this titanic tournament. Last time I tackled the Olympics, I focused on the 100M Dash. I ‘m stretching my horizons into gymnastics with…

Olympic Special Vol. 2: Vera Caslavska and Agnes Keleti

VERA CASLAVSKA: 1960 – Rome, 1964 – Tokyo, 1968 – Mexico City

Vera in 1967.

Mid-way through World War II on May 3, 1942, Prague’s Caslavska family introduced a baby girl. They named her Vera. From an early age, it was clear that Vera was a natural athlete. Initially, she started in dance, followed by figure skating. At 15 however, she switched to gymnastics. Like with the previous 2 sports, she dominated. Part of this was her and part was her instructor, Eva Bosakova (1952 – Helsinki, 1956 – Melbourne, and 1960 – Rome). Bosakova was already a multiple medal holder in both the Olympics and World Championships.

After a year or so of training Vera competed alongside Bosakova in 1959 at the European Championship. She won her first (of many) gold medals in the balance beams but slipped up on the uneven bars leaving her in 8^th. The team won the silver medal. This success continued into the Olympics in Rome where she won the silver in the team category again. She continued to compete and exponentially became the top gymnast of her era. In the World and European Championships and the Olympics, she won numerous gold and silver medals. Things changed around the 1968 Olympics however.

January 5, 1968, Antonin Novotny was officially replaced by Alexander Dubcek as 1^st Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. Dubcek’s goal was to create, “Communism with a Human Face.” In turn, he introduced more Democratic leaning policies and expanding people’s freedoms like speech. The Soviets were not pleased so they invaded Czechoslovakia with 600,000 soldiers and help from other Warsaw Pact nations. Vera was in support of the new reforms and signed the protest manifesto, “Two Thousand Words,” by Ludvik Vaculik. All this happened a few months before the Mexico City Olympics that fall (seriously, the 1968 summer games were held in October that year).

Vera was in trouble so her fled to the mountains. Similarly to Rocky in Rocky IV, she trained using the natural world, but out of necessity not because of manliness. After 3 weeks, she got word that the Czech allowed her to participate in the Mexico City games again. It was during these games that she became the first and only Olympian to ever win a medal in every gymnastics event. In addition to this, she refused to observe the rising of the Czech and Soviet flags when she tied for the gold in the Floor Exercise with Larisa Petrik. Many took notice, including the Soviets.

Around this time, she married Josef Odlozil, a fellow Czech Olympian. Back home in Prague, things changed. The government was suspicious of Caslavska and barred her from federal jobs for her protests and politics.

She divorced Josef in 1987. 3 years later the Communists lost power and she finally publicly regarded as a hero of the people. Also wasn’t barred from federal jobs. They had several children. One of them, Martin, stabbed his father in a dance club in 1993. Josef died. Martin was sent to prison. Vera focused on keeping her family together after this tragic event. She still resides in Prague today and lives a private life.

AGNES KELTEI: 1948 – London, 1952 – Helsinki, 1956 – Melbourne

Hungry’s Agnes Keleti came from humble beginnings, she was born to a Jewish family on January 9, 1921. Like other future Olympians she was attracted to sports early on. A natural gymnast, she excelled at the VAC Jewish Sports Club quickly. Her father, Ferencs, wanted both his daughters involved in sports. He was a lifelong athlete. Her mother complimented their father’s push for athletics with academics. Thanks to her, Agnes was a great student, cellist, and singer.

At 16, she won her first national championship. By the end of her professional career, there were 9 more national championships. She was on her way to the Olympics but World War II broke out. Hunngry was left out of it for awhile until Germany invaded. Agnes managed to get papers under the guise of a Christian woman named Piroshka. She worked for a Nazi-sympathizing family as a maid for the rest of the war. Her father was taken to Auschwitz. Her mother and sister luckily escaped thanks to the Swedish diplomat, Raoul Wallenberg (he was responsible for saving thousands of Hungarian Jews). By the end of the war the only family left was her mother and sister.

Agnes doing a split at 91.

Reunited with her family, Agnes resumed where her career left off. She won more national titles over the next few years and nearly made it to the London Olympic. 2 days before they began, she injured herself but recovered in time to compete in European and World Championships. In the Helsinki games, she became the oldest female gymnast to win an Olympian medal at 31. She won 4 medals in total. That record was broken again at the Melbourne games with 6 more medals. At 35, she set the record (again) for oldest female gymnast to win an Olympic medal.

The Soviet Union invaded Hungry during the Melbourne games. Instead of return home, she and the other Hungarians remained down under. She received political asylum to reside in Israel, where she still lives. In 1959, she married Robert Biro, a fellow Hungarian Jew that escaped the Soviets. They have 2 sons, Rafael and Daniel. In Israel, she become a corner stone in the establishment of Israeli Gymnastics. She ended up teaching at Tel Aviv University for years.

Agnes is the second most accomplished Jewish Olympic athlete with 10 medals, right behind Mark Spitz’ 11.

Not only did these women set world records, they managed to thwart both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union from destroying them mentally and physically. They are extraordinary women that need to be remembered and celebrated.

Sources

http://www.ighof.com/honorees/1998_Vera_Caslavska.php

https://www.olympic.org/vera-caslavska

http://brooklynquarterly.org/personal-protest-at-the-olympics/

http://thebiography.us/en/caslavska-vera

http://www.drmirkin.com/histories-and-mysteries/vera-caslavska-marriage-of-two-great-olympic-athletes.html

http://www.radio.cz/en/section/curraffrs/czechoslovak-sports-legend-vera-caslavska-celebrates-60th-birthday

http://web.archive.org/web/20040508164234/http://www.intlgymnast.com/events/2004/europeans/champions/caslavska.html

http://articles.latimes.com/1990-04-05/sports/sp-900_1_prague-spring

http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/prague-spring-begins-in-czechoslovakia

http://www.dhr.history.vt.edu/modules/eu/mod05_1968/evidence_detail_13.html 2,000 Words

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dykBBhaoczg

http://www.lib.umich.edu/soviet-invasion-czechoslovakia/pg1.html

http://www.gymn.ca/gymnasticgreats/wag/keleti.htm

http://esra-magazine.com/blog/post/agnes-keleti

http://www.jewishpress.com/sections/jewess-press/impact-women-history/agnes-keleti-the-foundation-stone-of-gymnastics-in-israel/2012/07/22/

http://www.ighof.com/honorees/2002_Agnes_Keleti.php

http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/keleti-agnes

http://www.jewishsports.net/BioPages/AgnesKeleti(Klein).htm

When it comes to Greek history most people know about Aristotle, Homer, Alexander the Great (I know he was Macedonian but that’s a story for another day), and the Olympics. Arguably the most fascinating aspect of Greek history is the War of Independence. One of the integral figures in the fight was…

LASKARINA BOUBOULINA: Greek Goddess of the Sea, Revolution, and Spetses

Laskarina was born to Stavrianos and Paraskevo Pinotsis on May 11, 1771 on the Greek island of Hydra. The Greece she knew wasn’t the center of intelligentsia from the Classical period. It was a Greece under the boot of the Ottoman Empire since the 15^th century CE. By this point, things were changing. There were several attempts at revolt but they failed. The latest around Laskarina’s birth, the Orlof Revolution, involved her father Stavrianos.

He was arrested and thrown in prison for his part. Paraskevo visited him frequently. His health was failing but they had Laskarina towards the end of his life. Her father died in prison when she was still a baby. When Laskarina was 4, her mother remarried a Navy man, Capt. Dimitrios Lazarou-Orlof. This took them from their home island of Hydra to Spetses nearby.

She loved hearing stories about the sea and majestic tales of bravery on the mighty ocean. Not much is known about her childhood. At 17, she married Dimitrios Yiannouzas. He was a rich sea captain with his own fleet. They had 2 sons, Yiannis and Yeorgo Yiannouzas.

After a few years, Dimitrios was killed fighting pirates. Laskarina inherited his fortune and ships. She remarried in 1801. His name was also Dimitrios, Dimitrios Bouboulina. They had 5 kids together. He was also a rich sea captain with a fleet of ships that died fighting pirates. In 1811, Laskarina was widowed again. She inherited even more money and ships. Laskarina successfully and smartly invested which in turn made her and her family one of the wealthiest on Spetses.

Now, this brought the attention the Ottomans at her door. In 1816, they claimed that they had the right to seize her money, ships, and home because her second husband was fighting under the Russian flag during the Turko-Russo War. He was a traitor and enemy of the empire. This was true but Laskarina had a plan. She sought out the Philhellene Russian Ambassador in Constantinople. He liked her and understood her anger. Czar Alexander, gave her a house in the Crimean Black Sea region of Russia to stay in until the Ottomans gave up. At this time, she joined the Filiki Etaireia, a revolutionary Greek group that was scheming another rebellion. In English, Filiki Etaireia means, “The Friendly Society.”

After 3 months in Russia, she returned to the Spetses. Filled with the spirit of revolt, she bought arms, built warships, and raised a private army. She was an ally to the revolutionaries, and aided them with soldiers, ships, and money. The lead ship of the fleet, The Agamemnon, was built for her specifically. She would lead naval assaults on the Ottomans. Not only was she a beneficiary to the cause but also she trained as a soldier and made it the rank of Admiral.

The Ottomans became suspicious of all this odd behavior of guns, ships, and strange people around her. She paid off the Ottoman officials inquiring about this with a hefty bribe. They left her alone after their payday.

The Greek War of Independence broke out March 13, 1821. Her first major victory was at Nafplion. The Ottoman naval fort was armed with 300 cannons. The Greek naval siege didn’t work so they landed nearby at Mili. Laskarina organized her troops and led a land siege at the powerful fort. After a long and arduous battle, they took the near impenetrable fort. She also fought in the Battles of Monemvassia, Siege of Tripoli, and Haradros. Her son, Yiannis, was killed at Haradros.

As a reward for the victory of Nafplion, she was given a house, the Greek forces took. In 1825, she sold the house. Nafplion was rife with political unrest. The Greek war hero and important leader for the Greeks, General Theodoros Kolokotronis, was sent to prison at the time. She saw the writing on the wall and left for Spetses.

Turkish-Egyptian forces were on the war path to take back what the Ottomans had lost. Laskarina and his officers were working on war plans when they got word of this oncoming attack. The Koutsis, another rich family on Spetses, had a major problem with Laskarina. Her son, Yeorgo had eloped with a Koutsis. One of Koutsis shot Laskarina for what her son did. She died from the gunshot wound.

Laskarina Bouboulina was made an admiral in both the Russian and Greek Navies for service. She has been a national Greek hero since her untimely, petty death. Luckily, the Greeks with help from Russia and others won. Even though she didn’t do it alone, Laskarina Bouboulina was a major player in making the Greeks a freed people and establishing Greece as we know it today. She rose from the ashes into an icon of bravery, courage, and determination.

Sources

http://www.ahistoryofgreece.com/revolution.htm

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/greece/5989510/Greek-woman-sets-fire-to-Britons-genitals-Laskarina-Bouboulina-the-heroine.html

http://www.ahepad22.org/articles/bouboulina.pdf

http://www.greeka.com/saronic/spetses/spetses-history/spetses-bouboulina.htm

https://badassladiesofhistory.wordpress.com/2014/06/13/laskarina-bouboulina/

http://www.ahistoryofgreece.com/biography/bouboulina.htm

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CAkWU-XaxLE

http://neoskosmos.com/news/en/Laskarina-Bouboulina

HASEKURA TSUNENAGA: The Pope’s Favorite Samurai

The Samurai, legendary warriors that actually did a lot more than fight with katanas. They were more or less government employees that were highly trained in cultural customs as well as warfare. One such job was diplomat.

Statue of Tsunenaga

By the 1500s, The Japanese had some interaction with Europeans but it was minimal, some trade and whatnot. Hasekura Tsunenaga was the first official ambassador to Europe. Tsunenaga embarked on a journey to Europe and North America in 1613.

Tsunenaga was born in 1571. Aside from that not much is actually known about his life. He came from a family of samurai. Like his father, Hasekura Tsunenari, he was trained as a samurai. Eventually, Tsunenaga became a mid-level samurai and retainer under Date Masamune in the Sendai domain. Things both personally and professionally shook up Tsunenaga’s life in 1612.

His father, Tsunenari was indicted for corruption and had his fief seized by Masamune. Not only that but Tsunenaga was supposed to be executed. However, this didn’t happen. Masamune had a plan. He wanted to let Christian missionaries in his domain. The Emperor and other Shoguns were decidedly against having any Western influence. They were trying to outlaw Christians from entering Japan. So, Masamune went rogue and defied them. He wanted to send an ambassador to meet with King Felipe III of Spain and Pope Paul V to organize a massive influx of Christian missionaries to convert Sendai (and possibly Japan), and to establish trade with Europe via the Spanish.

Tsunenaga was seen as a great pick for this mission. He was a veteran of the Korean invasion in 1597 under Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a

Tsunenaga Post Baptism

nd had years of experience sailing. Also, he didn’t want to die. Regardless of the outcome, the Hasekura estate would be restored and Tsunenaga would live.

On September 15, 1613 Tsunenaga left aboard the San Juan Bautista or as the Japanese called it the Date Maru, a Spanish Galleon built in Japan. It took 800 shipwrights, 700 smiths, 3000 carpenters, and 45 days to complete. The crew was 180, a mix of Spanish, Portuguese, and mostly Japanese, in total.

First stop, New Spain aka Mexico. They arrived in 1614. Meanwhile in Japan, the shoguns and Emperor were cracking down on Jesuits. They’d been hanging around since 1549. The Japanese leaders had had enough and outlawed any Christian missionaries from entering Japan. Effectively, cutting off their trade relationships with the Portuguese and Dutch. The Jesuits present were forced to leave. This was the start of cutting ties with the West.

The Date Maru landed in Acapulco, New Spain. Shortly after they met with the local Spanish viceroy. It went well though there isn’t much information on what exactly was discussed. They stayed for a bit. The Date Maru left with a fleet of Spanish escorts but a tropical storm forced them to stay hunker down in Cuba until it passed.

On October 5, 1614, the fleet reached Sanlucar de Barra, Spain. Evidently, they loved Spain and stayed there for 8 months. The meeting with King Felipe III went swimmingly. To cement the deal to trade goods with Spain, Tsunenaga was baptized a Catholic by the Archbishop of Toledo. His godfather was the Duke of Lerna. Tsunenaga’s Christian name was Don Filippo Francisco Hasekura-Rokuemon. King Felipe and Tsunenaga bro-ed out for a while then he had to leave to meet the Pope. Before reaching Rome, they stopped in France and Italy shortly. Apparently, it wasn’t as fun Spain.

After taking in the Mediterranean coast, they finally met the pope. Just like with Felipe III, Pope Paul V loved him and agreed to send missionaries to Japan. The Pope loved him so much that Tsunenaga is made an honorary Roman and nobleman. Thus making him, the pope’s and the Vatican’s favorite samurai.

They returned to Spain ASAP. However, Felipe III had bad news. He found out that the emperor and shoguns outlawed Christian missionaries from entering Japan. The deal was off but they stayed in Spain for as long as they wanted. They hung out in Spain for a bit and eventually left.

The Date Maru left in July 1616. Once it landed in New Spain, a few samurai ran away. They didn’t stay quite as long before but still took their time to get back. Next stop, the Philippines for 2 more years. Then they finally return to Sendai with the news in 1620. So, this mission was a giant waste of time and money but Tsunenaga had a great 7-year vacation.

Tsunenaga died in 1622 from illness. His grave is unknown and 3 different graves are allegedly his.

Most of his life unknown except for this brief 7 years, where a local governor sent him on a mission to undermine the national government’s official policies. It failed completely but if you got a free ticket to Europe on “official” business wouldn’t you take your time too. This was almost completely forgotten by for 250 years, until the Japanese opened up their borders again to Westerners.

Sources

http://civitavecchia.co.uk/hasekura.html

http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2014/03/12/arts/hasekura-tsunenagas-portrait-has-a-tale-to-tell/#.Vqd_kiorLIU

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Hasekura_Tsunenaga

http://www.urasenke.or.jp/texte/world/e_mexico03/e_mexico03.html

http://www.idtg.org/archive/1164-hasekura-tsunenaga/

http://www.artsales.com/ARTistory/Xavier/Hasekura.html

http://www.city.sendai.jp/kyouiku/museum/syuuzou/hasekura/index.html

AMINA OF ZARIA: African Warrior Queen Extraordinaire

Amina Even Has A Stamp!

Africa has a deep and rich history going from the Pharaohs of Egypt to the golden coast of the Asasnte to the Dahomey Amazons. One of the greatest aspects of this continent’s legacy is the queen, or more specifically, the warrior queen. There were several but most are overlooked. One of those is Amina.

First, there are a few things that need to be addressed. 1) She was a real person but there isn’t that much detailed information on her. 2) Some argue that she never existed but that isn’t true. She was a real person. She really ruled over the Zazzau city-state in the 16^th and 17^th centuries. 3) She ruled over Zazzau, currently that region of Nigeria is called Zaria in the Kaduna state.

Map of Modern Nigeria, Kaduna is in pink.

Before the era of Amina, the Songhai Empire dominated West Africa. They collapsed after 2 centuries. The remains of the Songhai in modern day Nigeria were split up into the 7 city-states – Zazzau, Katsina, Kano, Gobir, Rano, Biram, and Daura. These are now known as the Hausa Kingdoms, after the Hausa people from that region. The kingdoms were active in trade with the Arabs and other African states. If you were trading goods through Africa, you had to trade with one of the kingdoms. Amina was born into the formidable family controlling this city-state. Her exact birthdate is unknown. Her grandfather, Zazzau Nohir, was Sarkin (king) when she was born. Not much is known about her early life. She had a brother and probably other siblings. Just like other powerful royal women everywhere else, she was allowed to be educated. She was even allowed to join the military.

Nohir passed in 1549. Amina was 16. Her mother Bakwa, became queen regent, making Amina Magajiya (heir apparent) after her brother’s reign. She was given formal responsibilities in running Zazzau by her mother. These included, a daily meeting with a council on city activities, and a ward position within the court. In addition, she joined the military. She specialized in the Calvary. While her mom was queen, there weren’t many opportunities for her to excel in the Army. Despite that, Amina became one of the top warriors to contend with. She proved to be a smart tactician, expert equestrian, and mastered every weapon.

Her mother ruled for 17 years. Bakwa died in 1566. Her brother, Karama, took over as Sarkin. Amina was next in line. Karama unlike his mother, liked war. This gave his sister a chance to prove herself as a warrior and leader. Over the 10 years, she expanded territory for her brother and continued her role as ward in Zazzau. In 1576, Karama died. This was Amina’s time to shine. She still led troops in battle and was frequently on campaign. The Zazzau territory reached the Atlantic coast under her reign. Even though, she frequently fought, defense was on high priority. Massive walls that are still around were built her encampments. Many of which are still standing in major cities across Nigeria.

Amina with a Sword.

Her sex life is legendary. She never married nor had any children. After battles though, she’d take a temporary husband from the opposing force. They would spend a night together. The next day, he would be killed. Amina didn’t want rumors and stories of her sexual exploits to be spread. It would ruin her hold on Zazzau. So she made sure that never happened.

While on campaign in 1610, her army was staying in Altagara. She just died suddenly, after 34 years as queen regent. Her life and adventures inspired the series, Xena: Warrior Princess.

I’d like to reiterate; she was an actual person that lived on Earth. The main claim for the opposite is that this society wouldn’t have allowed a woman to be regent in charge. There are plenty of examples from around the world of a woman ruling a country where it was unheard of (read the TSI’s on Czarevna Sophia, Ana Nzinga, Margrete I for examples). It’s just blatant sexism to make that claim. There isn’t much on her but that doesn’t mean she never existed either. The legends and stories about her are a testament to her huge impact on the Hausa and Nigeria.

Amina earned her spot in history but not many seem to care. She defied expectations and took it to another level. The world followed suit.

References:

http://www.blackhistoryheroes.com/2013/07/queen-amina-of-zaira-west-african.html

http://afrolegends.com/2014/01/17/queen-amina-of-zazzau-the-great-hausa-warrior-ruler-born-to-rule/

http://www.historyandwomen.com/2010/08/amina-of-zaria.html

http://womenshistory.about.com/od/medrenqueens/p/amina.htm

http://www.wisemuslimwomen.org/muslimwomen/bio/queen_amina_of_zaria/

http://www.nairaland.com/2382816/great-hausa-queen-amina-zazzau

http://www.distinguishedwomen.com/biographies/zazzua.html

http://historyofafricaotherwise.blogspot.com/2014/06/nigeria-amina-of-zaria-mint-religious.html

http://www.blackpast.org/gah/hausa-city-states

OLYMPICS SPECIAL VOL. 1 BETTY ROBINSON AND WYOMIA TYUS: The 100M Special

Ah! The Olympics, the apex of athletics, the gold standard of the gold standard of the gold standard. Every 4 years the very best in the wide, wild, wicked world of sports compete for the gold medal, some of those athletes live on forever like Carl Lewis, Flo Jo, Wilma Rudolf, Jim Thorpe, Mary Lou Retton, the list goes on but there are several others that get lost in the storied and complicated history halls of the Olympics. This edition of TSI will focus on the Women’s 100M Sprint and 4 X 100M Relay. The forgotten stars featured in the first Olympic special are Betty Robinson and Wyomia Tyus.

BETTY ROBINSON: 1928 – Amsterdam, 1936 – Berlin

Betty’s career in track and field was brief but explosive. August 23, 1911 Elizabeth Robinson was born to Harry and Elizabeth Robinson. The Robinsons resided in Riverdale, Illinois. Elizabeth, or Betty as she preferred, wasn’t immediately interested in sports. Betty attended school in Wayne, Illinois. She was accidently discovered by her high school biology teacher, Charles Price. Mr. Price was also the assistant track coach. Betty missed a train home. She sprinted with all she had to catch it (according to legend she actually made it). Price knew there was a track star in her. She ran the 100M and 4 x 100M Relay. According to her, “I had no idea that women even ran that. I grew up a hick.” She was 15 at the time.

Her first official race was at Soldier Field in Chicago. She came in second place…to the current women’s 100M record-holder, Helen Filkey. This was followed by the Olympic qualifying meet for the 1928 games. Any previous Olympics qualifier, she wouldn’t have been invited. This was the first time in Olympic history where women were allowed to participate in track and field against the wishes of Pope Pious XI and Baron de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympics. Betty came in second and made the cut. By now, she had set a school record for the 100M and turned 16.

Betty was the only American to make it through the trial races and semifinal rounds of the 100M. Canada’s Fanny Rosenfeld was heavily favored to win the gold. Canada’s other sprinter, Myrtle Cook (also so-holder of the current world record time of 12.3 seconds) and Germany’s Helen Schmidt made false starts in the final race. They were disqualified, leaving only 4 runners. Betty narrowly won the gold with the world record time of 12.2 seconds. Second place’s Rosenfeld time was 12.3 seconds. Betty was 16 and the first women to win a gold medal in the Olympic Games. In the 4 x 100M Relay, the American Women team won silver to the Canadian team’s gold. Betty is still the youngest woman to win the gold in this event.

She received a diamond watch from Wayne, Illinois, a silver cup from her high school, and a golden globe necklace from Douglas MacArthur, the president of the Olympic committee. In September of that year she lowered the 100M record to 11.0 seconds. She continued to train and compete. A year later, she started attending Northwestern University where she set more world records for 60 yards, 70 yards, and 200 yards. Betty was an excellent shooter on the rifle team.

In 1931 however things took a downturn, while flying in a biplane with her cousin piloting. They ended up crashing. Her cousin was still alive. She was discovered and declared dead at the scene but the undertaker clarified that she was alive. Betty was in a coma for a time but woke up. She needed several years of recovery. The crash left her with severe cuts, a broken left leg, crushed left arm, and a concussion. Her leg needed a silver rod and pins to keep it intact. She was inactive in sports until 1934.

She resumed training but couldn’t bend her left leg into a starting position anymore, only a standing one. The 100M was out of the question but the 4 x 100M wasn’t. She was on the 1936 4 x 100M team with Harriet Bland, Annette Rogers, and Helen Stephens. Betty was third leg. They managed to win the gold medal even though Betty’s past few years. The German team had the lead until a baton mishap threw them off. No one thought this would have happened. A mere 5 years ago, Betty was dead and she won the gold medal again.

Shortly afterwards, she retired from athletics. Betty never received any endorsement deals and couldn’t play any professional sports. She ended up finding a living elsewhere. She married Richard Schwartz in December 1939. The couple had 2 children and 3 grandchildren. Betty was inducted in the USA Track and Field Hall of Fame in 1977, among others. She represented the Girls’ Athletic Association and Women’s Olympic Athletic Association throughout her life speaking to numerous communities and schools.

She died on May 21, 1999 from Alzheimer’s.

WYOMIA TYUS: 1964 – Tokyo, 1968 – Mexico City

Unlike Betty, Wyomia was a natural athlete from an early age. She was born in Griffin, Georgia on August 29, 1945. Her parents, Willie Tyus, worked on a dairy farm, and, Marie Tyus, was a laundry lady. They had very different ideas on whether or not their only daughter should play sports. Marie deemed it inappropriate for a lady but her father was the opposite. As the youngest of 4, she followed her brothers into sports. They attended segregated schools throughout their early years. There wasn’t much encouragement in her becoming an athlete but she kept at it.

In high school, she found basketball. After a while, she tried out for track and field. Wyomia wanted to be a high jumper but found her real specialty was the 4 x 100M and the 100M. Legendary track coach, Edward Temple, from Tennessee State University saw Wyomia at the Georgia State Championship. She was 15 but he knew she needed to be on his team. Temple invited her to his track and field camp that summer. In 1962, she went to the Amateur Athletic Union championship, won the 100M and set a new American record. The next year’s championship, Wyomia came in second to Edith McGuire.

Wyomia received a scholarship to TSU in 1963. Making her the first person in her family to attend college. She won several AAU titles while there. Narrowly, she made the team for the 1964 Olympic games. For the 100M, Wyomia won the gold. For the 4 x 100M, the American team won the silver. Despite the international success, her mother still didn’t like her only daughter playing sports. This was also the first time Wyomia beat Edith McGuire in the 100M. Regardless of what her mother wanted, she went to the 1968 Olympics. There was talk of a boycott from the African American athletes due to racism and threats but she along with a few others including Tommie Smith and John Carlos went. For the second time, she won the gold in 100M. This was the first time a person won the 100M in two consecutive Olympics. The next person to do this was Carl Lewis, 20 years later. Also the American team won the gold for 4 x 100M. Wyomia did not make the Black Power salute when she won her medals but she did dedicate them to John Carlos and Tommie Smith, who did.

Just like Betty, Wyomia retired after her second Olympics. She had no endorsements and had to find work elsewhere. She served as a goodwill ambassador to Africa working with training clinics and encouraging girls to participate in sports. She was invited to the Professional International Track Association in 1973. After two years as a pro she won 22 out of 36 races. Following this, she became a physical education teacher in the Los Angeles area. After getting married a second time, had 2 children. Billie Jean King, Wyomia, and several other female athletes formed the Women’s Sports Foundation in the mid-70s.

She still resides in the LA area now.

Both of these women deserve to be remembered more than they currently are. Both of them broke boundaries and made history. Betty came back from the dead. Wyomia went from a small farm in Georgia to the world’s fastest woman in her prime. They are some of the greatest athletes to grace the Olympic track and the world.

Sources

http://www.olympic.org/news/betty-robinson-athletics/179776

http://www.anb.org/articles/19/19-00969.html

http://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/21/sports/betty-robinson-a-pathfinder-in-women-s-track-dies-at-87.html

http://www.teamusa.org/News/2015/April/28/Betty-Robinson-The-Gold-Medalist-Who-Came-Back-From-the-Dead

http://www.usatf.org/halloffame/TF/showBio.asp?HOFIDs=137

http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/sports-outdoor-recreation/wyomia-tyus-b-1945

http://www.usatf.org/halloffame/TF/showBio.asp?HOFIDs=175

http://womenshistory.about.com/od/trackandfield/p/wyomia_tyus.htm

http://www.olympic.org/wyomia-tyus

http://sports.jrank.org/pages/4987/Tyus-Wyomia.html

http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB121259662999045367

TSAREVNA SOPHIA ALEKSEYEVNA ROMANOVA: Peter the Great’s Lesser Known but Much More Interesting Sister

When most people think of the Russian Tsars the names that pop up are Ivan the Terrible, Peter the Great, Catherine the Great, and Nicholas II. Believe it or not, there were multiple female tsars. The first and arguably most influential of them being Tsarevna Sophia Alekseyevna.

Sophia in royal wear.

September 27, 1657 Tsar Alexis I aka Alexis the Quietest and Tsarina Maria Miloslavskaya introduced a baby girl to the Russian Kingdom. That girl was Sophia Alekseyevna Romanova. She had 12 siblings, most prominently among them were Feodor III, Marfa, and Ivan V. Sophia, like her several sisters were kept in their quarters for most of their childhoods. They were deemed too precious for the public to see. A red silk curtain was even put in place to obscure them from visitors. Both Feodor and Ivan were frequently ill. Ivan was born blind. Among the 13 kids, Sophia was the natural leader.

Sophia swiftly made a strong impression on her father. Like Ana Nzinga, her father allowed her to be educated. She was the only daughter that had any interest in education and was shown all the aspects of ruling a country from the Court to dealing with Nobles to diplomacy. Even though it was taboo, she convinced her father to let her get an education equal to her brothers. Since she was a woman, it was very unlikely that she’d become Tsar. I mean, c’mon that’ll never happen. The children were taught by the top notch teachers in Europe, Simeon Polotsky, Silvestre Medvedev, and Karion Istomin. Intelligent and clever, Sophia was fluent in French, Latin and Polish as well.

Her mother died in March 1669. Sophia was 11. It was expected that Alexis was going to remain unmarried but nope. In 1671, he married Natalya Naryshkina. She only had 3 children. Peter Alekseyevna (the Great), Fyodora Alekseyevna, and Natalya Alekseyevna (grew up to be a prominent playwright). Alexis died in 1676 leaving the throne empty. Next in line was Feodor III. No one was exactly excited about this given his routinely poor health. However, Sophia served as his key advisor. His reign was brief and unimpressive. He passed away on May 7, 1682.

Her brother Feodor III as Tsar

Feodor was married twice but had no children. This created a problem. Ivan was next in line but Peter wasn’t having it. Several Boyars (nobles) supported Peter where the military and specifically the Streltsy (royal guard) wanted Ivan. He was not a strong leader, sickly, and blind. Peter on the other hand was immediately a natural leader and politician. Sophia did not like her step mother or her step mother’s family, especially Peter. Sophia wanted Ivan on the throne. She had a plan but before it could get started, the Streltsy rebelled.

Several rumors were abound regarding the two tsarovichs-in-waiting. The Streltsy commander, Ivan Khavansky, caught word that Tsarovich Ivan was killed by the Naryshkinas. He gathered a mob of his men and marched to the palace where the boys were staying. Along the way ravaging Moscow. They demanded to see Ivan. The Boyars there, presented Ivan and Peter. The Streltsy were happy but still furious. Some of the Boyars at the Palace were calming them but then fellow Boyar, Mikhail Dolgorukiy, spoke up. He undid the cool down from his allies. The Streltsy grabbed Mikhail and lynched him. They stormed the palace killing any Naryshkina in sight. After the raid, Boyars had several military commanders executed. Amid the chaos, Sophia asserted her power. Instead of having one tsar, have two. Both boys were still too young to rule so she’d be the regent in charge. Not many were happy about this but it’ll do for now.

Immediately, she had a problem. The Streltsy that raided the palace went rogue. They were still dangerous. Ivan Khavansky moved his troops to a monastery outside of Moscow. Sophia caught word that he planned to kill the entire royal family. She sent troops after him. He surrendered on September 27, 1682. She ordered his execution. Everyone knew she was serious and in charge.

Khavansky was replaced by Fyodor Shaklovity, who was also one of her key advisers along with Vasili V. Golitsyn (he was also her lover). One of her goals was to modernize Russia on par with the rest of Europe, it was difficult but she made some progress. Some of her major achievements during her reign include shrinking the number of Streltsy in Moscow, reforming Serf law by allowing the capture of fugitive serves, allowing peasants to permanently move of the city (which angered the Boyars), commissioning the first higher learning institution in Russia. It was the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. She also established several treaties instead of fighting wars. One of the treaties, the Treaty of Nerchinsk, was used to define the border between Russia and China.

Peter the Great, terrible half brother and person

Towards the end of her regency, she entered in an alliance with several other European nations to fight the Ottomans in the Crimea. This was a massive failure. By this point, Peter was of age to rule. Sophia was not married and had no children. Her only hope was Ivan but that was a lost cause. Peter fled Moscow, seemingly out of nowhere. While his half-sister was busy ruling a country, he was getting in the good graces with the Boyars. Sophia demanded that Peter report back to Moscow. He ignored her. She couldn’t order his execution, he was of royal blood. To make things worse the Boyars were going flocking to him. She lost supporters by the day. Sophia surrendered her title in 1689. She only ruled for 7 years.

Peter co-ruled with Ivan but he was really in charge. He couldn’t execute Sophia so he did the usual practice of sending her to a Convent. She wasn’t a nun but was held as a prisoner there. In 1698, a Streltsy unit tried to free her and restore her to power. This was a failure. Her sister Marfa helped in the rebellion and was sent to the Convent with Sophia. Sophia became a nun after this. She was kept in seclusion and seldom seen by anyone for the next few years.

Vasili, her lover and key adviser

Sophia died at the age of 46 on July 14, 1704. Peter the Great was an asshole. Unfortunately, she was portrayed as a fat, mean, old. stupid, hag. That was Peter’s propaganda but it’s still seen as valid by some. She was an intelligent, strong, clever woman that should have ruled longer than 7 years. She broke tradition, royal Russian women were supposed to just look pretty, stand in the background, and stay virgins unless married. A Russian scholar said, “They were born, lived, and died.” Peter is known for modernizing Russia but he picked up where Sophia left off. Again, Peter the Great was an asshole and shitty brother.

References

http://historyandotherthoughts.blogspot.com/2012/05/sophia-alekseyevna-of-russia.html

http://www.prlib.ru/en-us/History/Pages/Item.aspx?itemid=928

http://madmonarchist.blogspot.com/2012/01/royal-profile-tsarevna-sophia.html

http://russia-ic.com/people/general/r/541

http://www.self.gutenberg.org/articles/sophia_alekseyevna

http://www.prlib.ru/en-us/history/Pages/Item.aspx?itemid=542

Lincoln, W. Bruce. “Chapter 1-2.” The Romanovs: Autocrats of All the Russias. New York: Dial, 1981. N. pag. Print.

QUEEN ANNA NZINGA: The Humiliator of the Portuguese

This has taken far, far, far too long but I am finally tackling African history. I’m sorry and formally apologize for that. Also there are several spellings of her name, so I’ll refer to her as Nzinga to keep it simple.

Now, to the fun part, or not so fun part. The time is the 1500s CE, the slave trade in Europe was booming. Several prominent nations had strong claims in Africa and began colonization worldwide. Portugal had established a strong position in West Central Africa, using the standard method of capturing people against their will for slavery in colonies around the world.

Naturally, not everyone involved was happy about this practice. In 1582, the French and British were making strong moves cutting into Portuguese trade. The Portuguese had begun raiding the Ndongo and Mbundu Kingdoms in modern day Angola as a result. That same year, Nzinga was born to Ngola (king) Ndambi Kiluanji and Kangela, Kiluanji’s 2^nd wife. Nzinga was given her name because the umbilical cord was wrapped around her neck when she was born. She had a brother, Mbandi, and 2 sisters, Kifunji and Mukambu.

Her father had fought the Portuguese once they started taking his people and stealing his silver mines. The Portuguese called them the Angola because they were too lazy to actually learn anything about the Ndongo or Mbundu peoples. They mistook the word Ngola as Angola.

Nzinga was the favorite child. Kiluanji showed her all aspects of ruling a kingdom from military operations to diplomacy to dealing with other nobles. He even regularly took her on military campaigns and hunting trips. She received military training and knew how to hunt. In addition to this she received a top notch education. She was even fluent in Portuguese, which came in handy down the road.

Her father attempted to work with the Portuguese diplomatically but it never worked out. Mbandi took over in 1617. His father died under mysterious circumstances. He kept on fighting the Portuguese. This went rather poorly. After 5 years, he was desperate. Diplomacy was the only choice but who should he send?

Nzinga left Kabasa, the Ndongo capital, with an entourage for Luanda, the nearest Portuguese port. The resident colonial governor, Joào Corria de Sousa, had only one chair for this meeting. It was for him. He had an Mbundu floor mat for her. This sounds like it shouldn’t matter (but hear me out first). In Mbundu culture this floor mat was reserved for those inferior to you while you had a chair or stool. Nzinga was his equal, and proved it. She had her a servant get on all fours as her seat. The Portuguese were wildly caught off guard and actually took her seriously as a result. A peace treaty was reached. A large part of the success came from her getting baptized as a Christian and taking the name Donna Anna de Sousa after Joào’s wife.

Upon her return to Kabasa, her brother died. It’s murky how this happened. Some speculate that she had her brother killed, some believe that he killed himself, some believe that he was killed by a third party. Either way, it was Nzinga’s time to shine. Her claim to the throne was challenged since the Ndongo Kingdom was still a relatively new centralized kingdom and several nobles didn’t want a woman ruling them. However, she had the support of the military. Also her son, Kaza was too young to rule so he was she ruled in his place. He died under mysterious circumstances shortly after her crowning. Some suspect that she had him killed but there isn’t enough evidence to really support this. This probably isn’t the case. Her sisters served as her key advisers. She was given full regent powers. She was the first female Ngola.

Under her reign, things turned ugly quickly. The Portuguese saw this moment of weakness and attacked Kabasa. They annihilated the city and burned it down. Ngola Nzinga had to move her people out of Kabasa. She moved the capital to Kidonga with the refugees from Kabasa. She lost the Ndongo kingdom but formed a new one, the Matamba Kingdom (centralized at Matamba in 1630). She had worked out more peace treaties with the Portuguese but only she actually honored them. The Portuguese continued to pester Nzinga forcing her to relocate a few more times and form a new army. In order to secure even the slightest buffer from the Portuguese, she allied with the Imbangala state nearby. In addition, she also renovated the military with the Kilombo. These were villages where boys were sent to be trained for the military.

Nzinga is seen smoking in this engraving.

In the meanwhile, a puppet king was put up in Ndongo. Philip, he was related to Nzinga but she didn’t officially recognize him as the Ngola. One of her sisters was captured in the skirmish of various battles. She luckily found a way to still communicate with Nzinga.

During the 1630s, Nzinga herself, led troops in resistance. These campaigns heavily utilized guerillas tactics given the stark differences in weapons technologies. By 1639, the Portuguese were tired of fighting not only was Nzinga stronger than they thought but the neighboring kingdoms and states as well. A Portuguese priest and soldier were sent to discuss a peace treaty but these failed. They made some headway but not enough.

The fighting continued after the attempt at peace. In 1641, the Dutch with the Kongo kingdom seized Luanda. Quickly, they realized the Portuguese were the real enemy. They united. Nzinga moved her capital to Kavanga at this point. A few years later in 1644, with the allied kingdoms crushed the Portuguese at Ngoleme, a major Portuguese settlement, but did not completely defeat them. They regrouped and gave the united force a massive defeat at Kavanga in 1646. At this point, Nzinga’s other sister was captured and they raided her archives. The sister that had been a prisoner, for close to 10 years, was sending Nzinga Portuguese plans. That sister was drowned in the Kwanza River.

The Dutch helped by sending reinforcements and the fight continued. They assaulted the Portuguese capital at Masangano but again the Portuguese took her capital in retaliation. The war went back and forth for almost a decade more. Nzinga resisted until 1657. They signed a peace treaty. Each side honoured it this time. It even had a clause that made the Portuguese help her regain power, she didn’t have a living son to pass the throne onto. They attempted to marry off a noble or two but it never worked out. She still wasn’t safe from attempts by usurpers but none succeeded. She got the Ndongo Kingdom back and still reigned in the Matamba Kingdom. She transformed the kingdoms into economic powers. They became formidable for their businesses as opposed to military like before.

Nzinga’s Funeral.

Ngola Nzinga died on December 17, 1663 peacefully at the age of 82. She fought in battle with her soldiers until her 60s. She offered refuge for former slaves. She was a vocal advocate for women. As much as she used war, she attempted peace. She was widely respected, even by the Portuguese. She should be known by everyone in every history class but she isn’t. She even had a harem of men that would fight to spend a night with her. She was in charge and everyone knew it.

It took a few more centuries before the Portuguese finally conquered the Ndongo and Matamba.

References

https://madamsabi.wordpress.com/2014/06/23/queen-ana-de-sousa-nzinga-mbande/

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002301/230103e.pdf

http://afrolegends.com/2013/03/18/queen-nzingha-great-queen-of-angola/

http://womenshistory.about.com/od/medrenqueens/p/nzinga.htm

http://rainqueensofafrica.com/2011/05/nzinga-of-ndongo-and-matamba/

http://www.blackhistoryheroes.com/2011/03/queen-ana-de-sousa-njinga-mbande-of.html

http://www.blackpast.org/gah/queen-nzinga-1583-1663

http://www.amazingwomeninhistory.com/anna-nzinga-mbande-fearless-africa-queen/

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm

http://africanhistory.about.com/od/biography/fl/Queen-Nzinga-African-Leader.htm

http://www.historyisfun.org/pdf/Curriculum-Materials/AngolanConnection.pdf

MONGOLIA UNDER BOGD KHAN: Two Revolutions for the Price of One

When it comes to the Mongolian history, most people stop at the death of Genghis Khan or if you’re a history nerd, the Golden Horde in Russia. However, the Mongolians have a deeply interesting and ignored history. This will cover a specified time in Mongolian history. In a short amount of time they went through two different revolutions, the Revolution of 1911 and Revolution of 1921, including a brief flirtation with a monarchy. This laid the path for what they would become in the 20^th century.

Before I start at 1911, I need to set a foundation. Mongolia was not independent pre-1911. It was a military protectorate under Imperial China for centuries. There were several races under Chinese control most prominently Mongols, Manchus, and Han. They more or less operated on its own since it was the furthest part of the empire. Mongolia was like the kid in the back of class that the teacher sometimes forgets is there. Mongolia was divided into two different protectorates, Outer Mongolia and Inner Mongolia. Outer is what we now know as Mongolia and Inner was right below it (Some is modern China and some is modern Mongolia). By the late 20^th century Imperial China was nearly at its end. The shadow of Russia was slowly but surely closing in.

Meanwhile in Europe Great Britain and Russia were in the midst of the Great Game. This was a battle of diplomatic dick size in Central Asia. Russia wanted to prove itself following their embarrassing defeat in the Crimean War. This included a series of treaties in the 1890s, one of which included recognizing Tibet as a part of China. The Russians had been moving into China via Outer Mongolia for a while by this point. They set up shop throughout the Mongolias. The Chinese didn’t like it but couldn’t do anything about it. Also numerous Chinese businesses had moved into Outer Mongolia. Now, this sounds good but it wasn’t. The Qing government reach barely touched Mongolia. It was a haven for businesses that didn’t have to follow the law. The Russians and Chinese were taking advantage of the local Mongol population. They used monasteries as trading depots. There were a lot of them given that 45% of the male population in Outer Mongolia were Buddhist monks. The Mongols didn’t have many natural resources aside from animal products, which weren’t worth a lot, and had no real foot in the door in the trade between China and Russia. This is only the beginning if Mongolia’s complicated relationship with Russia.

Mongolian Nobles with Russians

The Chinese saw this as a golden opportunity. The Mongols could only sell their goods for low prices. The Chinese sold their goods on credit. This went on for decades. By 1911, the Mongols had accumulated 15 million taels in debt to Chinese to traders. 1 tael is $653.31 in current American dollars. That means the total debt was $9,799,650,000. If divided between every household in Outer Mongolia, it’s 500 taels/$326,655 per home. This was only one of the problems that led to the Mongols revolting.

The Qing regime realized following their crushing defeat during the Boxer Rebellion that they have problems. It was too late stop the avalanche. A series of restrictions on its citizens were abolished. These included, allowing Mongols to speak to Chinese, allowing marriage between Chinese, Manchus, and Mongols, allowing Chinese to move their families in Mongolia (Outer and Inner), and Han (largest Chinese ethnic group) settlement in the Mongolias. Even though on the surface this appears good for Mongolia. It in fact made the situation worse. The racial tension between the Mongols, Han, and Manchus went from bad to worse. The Qing administration was so dedicated to this that they established the Department of Colonization in 1907. The purpose of it was to promote Han movement to the Mongolias and attempt to get the Russians and their allies out of Chinese territory. All the while, the Mongolians were still treated as second class citizens.

The Qing tried to force the Mongols to convert their land into villages and farms. This failed. The Mongolian land is much better for herding animals than growing crops. On top of this, the Qing tried again to build gold mines throughout the Mongolia. The Mongolians did not like this. It would ruin their land but no one cared and they tried it anyway.

Remember how the Qing administration wanted to remove all the Russians. This also didn’t go as planned. A Russian noble, Baron Von Grot, managed a Belarus-Russia company that attempted to build a gold mine in Outer Mongolia, in Tushiyetu Khan and Setsen Khan aimags (Mongolian province) to be specific. One year later in 1901, they ran out of money and abandoned the project. In 1906, Von Grot did the same thing again. He requested permission from the Qing this time. They said no but he did it anyways. He was backed by the Romanovs after all. The Chinese could only tax the gold mines and just let them do it regardless. In 1910, the Qing received 200,000 taels/$130,662,000 from these gold mines alone. That was only 10% of their total profits by that point. Again, no one cared about the Mongolians.

The groundwork for revolution was firmly planted in Mongolian soil. By this point, the Revolution of 1911 had ravaged through China and eventually reached Mongolia.

Decades before that though a baby boy was born in Tibet. The year was 1869. His father managed the finances of the Dali Lama. The boy’s name was Jivzundamba Agvaanluvsanchoijinyamdanzanvanchug. 5 years later, the family moved to Mongolia, where Jivzundamba spent his childhood. He also happened to be the 8^th reincarnation of Bogd Gegen or the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu (Mongolian for, “Mongolian Holy Precious Master”). This made him the Buddhist religious leader in Mongolia, Pope level prestige. He married Ekh Dagina in 1902. They had a son and adopted daughter. I’ll refer to the Mongolian Holy Precious Master as Bogd Khan from here on.

Queen Ekh Dagina with her daughter

Bogd Khan had the best education available. He was trained in many religious studies, and several languages. Apparently, his Mongolian was better than Tibetan. As word of revolution started to spread to Mongolia, it reached Bogd Khan. He started to publicly encourage the Mongolians to revolt. Mongolia wasn’t strong enough to break away from China so they need help. The closest nation that can help is Russia. You know one of the reasons they wanted to be revolt in the first place. Remember when I said their relationship with Russia is complicated.

By 1911, the Xinhai Revolution was raging in China. This led to Mongolia’s Revolution of 1911. The Empire was collapsing. This was the time. The top Khalka Khans (nobles) from the most powerful aimag; Tusheet Khan – Dashnyam, Zasagt Khan – Sonomravdan, Setsen Khan – Navaantseren, and Sain Khan – Namnansuren, along with Bogd Khan wrote and signed a letter seeking assistance from the Russians to separate from China. It would be impossible without them.

In the meantime when waiting for a response, there were several meetings throughout the year to figure out the semantics of becoming a separate nation. They did these under the cover of religious ceremonies for the Bogd Khan. By October 1911, they had formed the General Provisional Administrative Office for the Affairs of Khalka Khan or the GPAOAKK. The Russians replied, and…it…was…a…YES!

December 1, 1911, they sent a Declaration of Independence to the Manchu military governor.

December 29, 1911, Bogd Khan and Ekh Dagina are enthroned as the monarchs of Mongolia (This day is now their Independence Day aka Tusgaar Togtnoliin Udur). This wasn’t just a local issue for China, it was international news. The Frankfurter Zeitung (Frankfurt General Newspaper in English) on January 10, 1912 reported, “The Crisis in Mongolia has its origin in the failure of the last Chinese Emperors to conceal, driven by their political activities, their dissatisfaction with the Khutuktu, who is the religious leader of this nation. It was the Khutuktu who turned to the Russians. He just like the Dalai Lama of Tibet, led by the people who were discontented with Chinese sovereign rule…This second living Buddha, overconfident in himself, entertained unrealistic ideas. The Khutuktu is rather old and likes alcoholic drinks and other earthly pleasures that are unacceptable to his religion.”

A meeting leading up to their split from China

The Revolution of 1911 is a success.

The newly crowned king picked a cabinet of ministers. They were; Interior Minister – Da Lam Tserenchimed, Foreign Minister – Khanddorj, Finance Minister – Chagdarjav, Justice Minister – Namsrai. In July 1912, a Prime Minister was selected, Namnansuren. The initial goal was to eventually incorporate Inner Mongolia into their country. 38 out of 49 Mongolian banners (ethnic sub-group) were in support of independence. However, the Chinese were not gonna let these Mongols have their land.

Meanwhile in China, a republic was established. They wanted to get the band back together via the Republic of 5 Races. The Mongolians were not interested, they moved out last year. The Chinese tried to sweeten the pot several times and the Bogd Khan never bit. Later that year, on November 3, 1912, the Russian-Mongolian Agreement was signed. Russia was the first nation to formally recognize Mongolia as a fellow nation. The agreement also included a military alliance and military protection via the Russians.

Even though the Chinese said they were done with Mongolia. They did continuously threaten to send in troops but the threat of the Russians kept them away. This looks great. Mongolia is on its own and they have a buddy named Russia that will always be there to protect them but the Russians also recognized China’s rule over Mongolia. They also helped Mongolia a lot in the next few years.

On May 25, 1915, China finally recognized Mongolia as a nation.

The Mongolian military was a messy situation to put it lightly. Initially, it had 20,000 troops. The Bogd Khan didn’t want a military or have the money to support one for long. The Russians gave them 2,000,000 Rupees/$1,000,000 American Dollars (current) to build up a military. A Machine Gun company, 2 calvary regiments, and 4 gun battery of artillery were created because that’s what the Russians told them to do. 1,900 Russian soldiers and officers were sent as well to oversee the overhaul. They attempted to whip the army into shape. It didn’t work.

The Mongol soldiers thought the Russians were too cruel. Numerous soldiers deserted in response to the harsh training and treatment. The Russians tried again. They gave the Mongolian Army another 1,000,000 rupees along with a financial officer to see how they’d spend the money. After this failed the Russians backed out for a few reasons. By 1919, the army was a mere 2,000 troops. In 8 years it shrank by 90%.

The Russians backed out on the Mongolians because of something called the Bolshevik Revolution and more importantly their training wasn’t working. On top of that the Bogd Khan weren’t great rulers but they were liked by the people. The Chinese moved in and swiftly occupied Mongolia. In 1919, after 8 years Mongolia is a part of China again.

Ax Hero Himself

One soldier Sukhe Bator (“Ax Hero,” in Mongolian) decided to change this. He was a prominent and well-liked Mongolian soldier. He quickly moved through the ranks. He got together with other revolutionaries and established the Mongolian People’s Party. They fled to the Soviet Union for more training and support.

Sukhe Bator returned a few years later, in 1921, with Mongolian and Soviets soldiers. They fought back and swiftly fought their way through Mongolia. They reached Khiagt, Outer Mongolia on July 11, 1921. The Chinese gave up on Mongolia for the second and final time. This day is celebrated as their National Holiday. Khiaght became the new capital. The Revolution of 1921 is a success. They are a free nation again.

A new government was formed, the People’s Government of Mongolia. They are now a communist nation with a monarchical figurehead. The Bogd Khan had limited power but he still had influence. It was not fully communist yet. He was the last monarch to rule in Mongolia. The queen, Ekh Dagina, and national hero, Sukhe Bator, both died in 1923. Bogd Gegen died in 1924. They fully shifted to a communist state after his death.

Jivzundamba Agvaanluvsanchoijinyamdanzanvanchug aka Bogd Gegen ruled in one of Mongolia’s most interesting, turbulent, and defining eras, that is too often overlooked.

References

Act, The Movement In Mongolia After The 1911 Revolution Is Often Written Within The, Context Of The Mongolian Declaration Of Independence, But This Article Analyzes, and Various Reactions From Pro-Independence Forces And Constitutional Monarchy. The 1911 Revolution and “ Mongolia”: Independence, Constitutional Monarchy, or Republic (n.d.): n. pag. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

Ng. Chapter 18 The Mongolian National Revolution of 1911 and Bogdo Jebtsumdamba Khutuktu, the Last Monarch (n.d.): n. pag. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

“Warfare History Blog.” : Outer Mongolian Revolution: Tibetan-Buddhist Holy Warriors & the Asiatic Cavalry Division, 1919-1922. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

“Mongolia – Modern Mongolia, 1911-84.” Mongolia – Modern Mongolia, 1911-84. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

Kotkin, Stephen, and Bruce A. Elleman. Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Landlocked Cosmopolitan. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1999. Print.

UNITED STATES CAMEL CORPS EXPERIMENT: For A Few Camels More

Major Crosman

This is exactly what you think it is. There was a United States Army unit that specialized in camels. Was it a success? What does Jefferson Davis have to do with this exactly? How much money was spent on this? Read and find out the bizarre story of the Camel Corps.

The year is 1836. Army Lieutenant George H. Crosman along with E. H. Miller were on tour in the untamed West. They work for the Quartermaster Department. The journey is rough. Horses were okay for the trip but Crosman had a better idea. He suggested camels would make this much easier. They are perfect for the environment. Crosman and Miller completed their tour and then developed a report on why camels are the best option to make settling the West faster and easier. He cited, they can carry up to 900 lbs, go 30 to 40 miles in a day and go for up to 8 days with little food and water. Crosman and Miller turned in their report to the War Department. Before they had time to celebrate, the War Department responded with a resounding Nope.

This was not the first time, camels were considered for military use outside of their natural habitat. The Spaniards had tried a few centuries before in the Americas but it failed. They found camels to be too difficult to deal with and abandoned the project. The British tried using camels in Jamaica but that also failed for the same reason.

Camel in the Wild

Crosman was not deterred by rejection. He doubled down and continued his camel research on camels.

The Mexican – American War began in 1846. Crosman served and clearly saw how camels could improve military operations. Around this time, he met a fellow camel fanatic, Major Henry C. Wayne. He was a fellow officer from the Quartermaster Department. Major Wayne had also done a tour in the West and saw the need for camels. He had a connection in the War Department that could help. That was Jefferson Davis.

Davis had also spent time in the West and was completely on board with the idea. He tried to get it through Congress in 1848 and still no one was convinced. Camels were a secondary concern to the Mexican War. The trio of Davis, Crosman, and Wayne, still fervently believed in this project despite rejections.

Jefferson Davis

A few years later in March 1851, Jefferson introduced another camel bill for Congress. This was proposing a separate, experimental Army unit specializing in using camels. He wanted $30,000 to purchase 50 camels, hiring 10 Arab camel handlers, and other needed expenses for taking proper care of camel herds. Davis emphasized the history of camels, how they can be fully utilized for American military use, and how camels are superior to horses. Davis wanted to not only use camels for transporting goods and supplies but he also wanted to put small cannons on them to help fight the Native Americans. Dromedaries or Arabian camels (one hump) were requested. Congress shot it down, again.

Senator William Henry Bissell from Illinois, later the 11^th Governor of Illinois and Congressional rival to Jefferson Davis, proposed nearly the exact same bill but instead of $30,000, it was $20,000, only a year later. The House voted Yes, but died in Senate.

The news of a potential camel bill going through created a craze over the foreign creature. In 1853,  the historian and linguist, John Russell Barlett was a big supporter for the bill. That same year, George Robins Gliddon, an Egyptologist, had spent 23 years in Egypt. He saw how effective camels are firsthand and wrote to Congress that it was, “feasible.” In 1854, pioneer environmentalist George Perkins Marsh, spoke at the Smithsonian Institution in support of camels. He even published a book on it 2 years later, “The Camel, His Organization, Habits, and Uses, Considered with Reference to His Introduction to the United States.” In New York, a club formed exclusively about camels, The American Camel Club. They paid for a shipment of camels in 1857. It landed in Texas later that year.

Going back a few years, Davis was selected as Franklin Pierce’s Secretary of War, in 1853. Jefferson Davis tried to get his camel bill through and on March 3, 1855 it went through both houses of Congress and became a reality. Davis now had $30,000 to build the Camel Corps. He wanted to be sure that everything would go perfectly so he sent Major Wayne and Navy Lieutenant David Dixon Porter to Europe and the Mediterranean for further research. Porter and Wayne shortly left for their European research trip/vacation.

They spent most of the trip separately to cover more ground. Wayne started his journey in England. He visited the Zoological Gardens while there he learned how to properly take care of them. If they can live in England, they can live in the USA. Next stop Paris, Wayne met with French soldiers that served in Algeria. They agreed that using camels would work. The French soldiers suggested that Arabian camels are the best for the purpose and climate.

Porter on the other hand initiated his branch in the Eastern Mediterranean via the ship, “Supply.” He got word of a massive camel farm in Pisa, Italy where 250 camels did the amount of work equal to 1000 horses. This was too good to be true. When he arrived there, the farmer told him that camels have been used in Italy for 200 years. The camels were according to Porter ‘mistreated,’ and ‘sickly.’ They were bred from a strong Egyptian herd but this was too good to be true.

Porter and Wayne met up in Spezzia, Italy. The next step was simple, adopt a camel, raise it together, and learn how build this new unit. They bought 2 camels from Mohammed Bey in Tunis and stayed in Tunis to raise the camels. They heard that Persia has good, well-bred beasts. Next stop Persia but there was a problem. A war broke out and a colossal snow storm hit during the trip. Luckily, Constantinople was nearby and they could buy some there. There were no worthy camels for military use. Porter and Wayne got word that Egypt had good camels for the unit.

They got down to Egypt and…there were camels, great camels at that. Porter and Wayne bought 33 for about $250 a piece. 8 camel handlers came along with them. Only 2 of them were actual camel handlers. The herd was mostly Dromedaries with a few Bactrian (2 humps) and a Tulu (hybrid- Arabian and Bactrian). The shipment was dropped off in Indianola, Texas in Kerr County. The herd was taken to Army posts around Texas in Houston, El Paso, and Bowie. A second shipment of 4 dozen was purchased in 1856.

The soldiers didn’t like them. They were stubborn, ugly, and spit at them a lot. The other animals were initially weary but warmed up to them very quickly. Wayne successfully used them as burden-bearing beasts. This was followed up by doing several tests including mountain trails, mud, and traversing rivers. They passed but they were not used to water had difficulty with slippery slopes and rivers.

The locals took to them too quickly. A local poet wrote a wonderful poem praising the camels for the Indianola Bulletin. The children went on a camel rides. People came from all over Texas just to see these camels.

Jefferson Davis was replaced as Secretary of War in 1857. James Buchanan won the recent election and placed John B. Floyd, formerly the 31^st governor of Virginia, as Secretary of War. Davis returned to the Quartermaster Department. Now, there’s a dilemma for the future of the project. Was Floyd as camel crazy as Davis?

Yes, he was. He authorized an expedition from Fort Defiance, New Mexico to California following the 35^th parallel. This was prompted by a petition signed by 60,000 for the construction for a permanent road to California. Floyd chose the California Militia’s Brig. Gen. Edward Fitzgerald Beale to survey the territory. This was the perfect opportunity for the experimental unit. Beale had to bring 25 camels to see how they handle the trip. This was the real test.

Beale did not want to use camels. He left them at Camp Verde while prepping. Floyd was determined and made him take them. Beale left on June 25, 1857. Initially, Beale didn’t know what to do with the camels but, by late July his stance was reversed. The camels are worth the money. He wrote to Floyd, saying, “I have subjected them to trials which no other animal could possibly have endured.” The expedition reached the Colorado River on October 19. The camels took to the water and crossed with no problem.

Sketch of the Beale Expedition

On the report back to Floyd, Beale said that it was a success and the camels are perfect for military use. He never mentioned that he left most of the camels in California for the soldiers there and that 3 died on the way there. Based on this success, Floyd went to Congress to order 1000 camels. It was denied. The United States Camel Corps Experiment was over.

The camels were sparingly used by the military afterwards. However, many businesses started to use camels for transporting goods out West. Even civilians got in on the action. In 1858, there was a local woman in Houston that ordered 2 cargoes of camels for her ranch. The person in charge of maintaining these herds and its handlers was Francis R. Lubbock, the 6^th Lt. Governor of Texas and later 9^th Governor of Texas.

The Civil War killed all the potential of using camels and overshadowed it. The camels were scattered throughout the west. No one knew or cared about what to do with them. The Confederates captured the Texas posts with camels during the American Civil War. The rest in California remained there for the few decades. The Confederates used the camels for transporting mail a few times and nothing else besides that. At the end of the war the animals were sold off to various people and businesses.

A weird side note, 3 of 5 people directly involved with the Camel Corps became major players in the Confederate States of America. Jefferson Davis was the President, John B. Floyd was a Brigadier General, and Major Henry C. Wayne was also a Brigadier General.

This was a successful experiment. Camels could have changed the outcome of American history but we’ll never know how much or to what extent. We could have had Billy the Kid strike fear in the heart of Old West banks on camelback or even better A Fistful of Dollars but the Man with No Name rides in on a camel. The possibilities are endless. It makes no sense that the experiment was cancelled but it’s a fascinating look at a part of history that should be more famous.

Resources

http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/12/27/the-short-life-of-the-camel-corps/?_r=0

https://armyhistory.org/the-u-s-armys-camel-corps-experiment/

http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/the-united-states-army-used-camels-until-after-the-civil-war-180948201/?no-ist

http://www.desertusa.com/mag05/sep/camel.html

http://www.qmmuseum.lee.army.mil/historyweek/26aug-1sep.htm

http://www.scvhistory.com/scvhistory/hijolly-ap.htm

http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Journals/PopSciM/74/Jefferson_Davis_Camel_Experiment*.html

http://uselessinformation.org/camel/index.html

http://burnpit.legion.org/2011/04/camels-arrive-texas-begin-us-army-experiment

http://mentalfloss.com/article/61993/how-civil-war-broke-camel-corps

https://books.google.com/books?id=j05vwNRXi-0C&pg=PA277&lpg=PA277&dq=camel+corps+jefferson+davis&source=bl&ots=HEltoYjz1z&sig=zpMkIMn5-6UOC5ANxHkH8ND2xOc&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CB0Q6AEwADgKahUKEwjBh-mx7qnHAhVG1IAKHc9rAVk#v=onepage&q=camel%20corps%20jefferson%20davis&f=false

http://www.legendsofamerica.com/we-ghostcamels.html

https://books.google.com/books?id=bhk7AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA143&lpg=PA143&dq=jefferson+davis+camel&source=bl&ots=Lkf-c-uBGG&sig=5O6srKAKEHV6K1EjpbmdJytC0CA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CB8Q6AEwATgKahUKEwj0nde88anHAhXLOj4KHebQD7w#v=onepage&q=jefferson%20davis%20camel&f=false