AMINA OF ZARIA: African Warrior Queen Extraordinaire

Amina Even Has A Stamp!

Africa has a deep and rich history going from the Pharaohs of Egypt to the golden coast of the Asasnte to the Dahomey Amazons. One of the greatest aspects of this continent’s legacy is the queen, or more specifically, the warrior queen. There were several but most are overlooked. One of those is Amina.

First, there are a few things that need to be addressed. 1) She was a real person but there isn’t that much detailed information on her. 2) Some argue that she never existed but that isn’t true. She was a real person. She really ruled over the Zazzau city-state in the 16^th and 17^th centuries. 3) She ruled over Zazzau, currently that region of Nigeria is called Zaria in the Kaduna state.

Map of Modern Nigeria, Kaduna is in pink.

Before the era of Amina, the Songhai Empire dominated West Africa. They collapsed after 2 centuries. The remains of the Songhai in modern day Nigeria were split up into the 7 city-states – Zazzau, Katsina, Kano, Gobir, Rano, Biram, and Daura. These are now known as the Hausa Kingdoms, after the Hausa people from that region. The kingdoms were active in trade with the Arabs and other African states. If you were trading goods through Africa, you had to trade with one of the kingdoms. Amina was born into the formidable family controlling this city-state. Her exact birthdate is unknown. Her grandfather, Zazzau Nohir, was Sarkin (king) when she was born. Not much is known about her early life. She had a brother and probably other siblings. Just like other powerful royal women everywhere else, she was allowed to be educated. She was even allowed to join the military.

Nohir passed in 1549. Amina was 16. Her mother Bakwa, became queen regent, making Amina Magajiya (heir apparent) after her brother’s reign. She was given formal responsibilities in running Zazzau by her mother. These included, a daily meeting with a council on city activities, and a ward position within the court. In addition, she joined the military. She specialized in the Calvary. While her mom was queen, there weren’t many opportunities for her to excel in the Army. Despite that, Amina became one of the top warriors to contend with. She proved to be a smart tactician, expert equestrian, and mastered every weapon.

Her mother ruled for 17 years. Bakwa died in 1566. Her brother, Karama, took over as Sarkin. Amina was next in line. Karama unlike his mother, liked war. This gave his sister a chance to prove herself as a warrior and leader. Over the 10 years, she expanded territory for her brother and continued her role as ward in Zazzau. In 1576, Karama died. This was Amina’s time to shine. She still led troops in battle and was frequently on campaign. The Zazzau territory reached the Atlantic coast under her reign. Even though, she frequently fought, defense was on high priority. Massive walls that are still around were built her encampments. Many of which are still standing in major cities across Nigeria.

Amina with a Sword.

Her sex life is legendary. She never married nor had any children. After battles though, she’d take a temporary husband from the opposing force. They would spend a night together. The next day, he would be killed. Amina didn’t want rumors and stories of her sexual exploits to be spread. It would ruin her hold on Zazzau. So she made sure that never happened.

While on campaign in 1610, her army was staying in Altagara. She just died suddenly, after 34 years as queen regent. Her life and adventures inspired the series, Xena: Warrior Princess.

I’d like to reiterate; she was an actual person that lived on Earth. The main claim for the opposite is that this society wouldn’t have allowed a woman to be regent in charge. There are plenty of examples from around the world of a woman ruling a country where it was unheard of (read the TSI’s on Czarevna Sophia, Ana Nzinga, Margrete I for examples). It’s just blatant sexism to make that claim. There isn’t much on her but that doesn’t mean she never existed either. The legends and stories about her are a testament to her huge impact on the Hausa and Nigeria.

Amina earned her spot in history but not many seem to care. She defied expectations and took it to another level. The world followed suit.

References:

http://www.blackhistoryheroes.com/2013/07/queen-amina-of-zaira-west-african.html

http://afrolegends.com/2014/01/17/queen-amina-of-zazzau-the-great-hausa-warrior-ruler-born-to-rule/

http://www.historyandwomen.com/2010/08/amina-of-zaria.html

http://womenshistory.about.com/od/medrenqueens/p/amina.htm

http://www.wisemuslimwomen.org/muslimwomen/bio/queen_amina_of_zaria/

http://www.nairaland.com/2382816/great-hausa-queen-amina-zazzau

http://www.distinguishedwomen.com/biographies/zazzua.html

http://historyofafricaotherwise.blogspot.com/2014/06/nigeria-amina-of-zaria-mint-religious.html

http://www.blackpast.org/gah/hausa-city-states

MONGOLIA UNDER BOGD KHAN: Two Revolutions for the Price of One

When it comes to the Mongolian history, most people stop at the death of Genghis Khan or if you’re a history nerd, the Golden Horde in Russia. However, the Mongolians have a deeply interesting and ignored history. This will cover a specified time in Mongolian history. In a short amount of time they went through two different revolutions, the Revolution of 1911 and Revolution of 1921, including a brief flirtation with a monarchy. This laid the path for what they would become in the 20^th century.

Before I start at 1911, I need to set a foundation. Mongolia was not independent pre-1911. It was a military protectorate under Imperial China for centuries. There were several races under Chinese control most prominently Mongols, Manchus, and Han. They more or less operated on its own since it was the furthest part of the empire. Mongolia was like the kid in the back of class that the teacher sometimes forgets is there. Mongolia was divided into two different protectorates, Outer Mongolia and Inner Mongolia. Outer is what we now know as Mongolia and Inner was right below it (Some is modern China and some is modern Mongolia). By the late 20^th century Imperial China was nearly at its end. The shadow of Russia was slowly but surely closing in.

Meanwhile in Europe Great Britain and Russia were in the midst of the Great Game. This was a battle of diplomatic dick size in Central Asia. Russia wanted to prove itself following their embarrassing defeat in the Crimean War. This included a series of treaties in the 1890s, one of which included recognizing Tibet as a part of China. The Russians had been moving into China via Outer Mongolia for a while by this point. They set up shop throughout the Mongolias. The Chinese didn’t like it but couldn’t do anything about it. Also numerous Chinese businesses had moved into Outer Mongolia. Now, this sounds good but it wasn’t. The Qing government reach barely touched Mongolia. It was a haven for businesses that didn’t have to follow the law. The Russians and Chinese were taking advantage of the local Mongol population. They used monasteries as trading depots. There were a lot of them given that 45% of the male population in Outer Mongolia were Buddhist monks. The Mongols didn’t have many natural resources aside from animal products, which weren’t worth a lot, and had no real foot in the door in the trade between China and Russia. This is only the beginning if Mongolia’s complicated relationship with Russia.

Mongolian Nobles with Russians

The Chinese saw this as a golden opportunity. The Mongols could only sell their goods for low prices. The Chinese sold their goods on credit. This went on for decades. By 1911, the Mongols had accumulated 15 million taels in debt to Chinese to traders. 1 tael is $653.31 in current American dollars. That means the total debt was $9,799,650,000. If divided between every household in Outer Mongolia, it’s 500 taels/$326,655 per home. This was only one of the problems that led to the Mongols revolting.

The Qing regime realized following their crushing defeat during the Boxer Rebellion that they have problems. It was too late stop the avalanche. A series of restrictions on its citizens were abolished. These included, allowing Mongols to speak to Chinese, allowing marriage between Chinese, Manchus, and Mongols, allowing Chinese to move their families in Mongolia (Outer and Inner), and Han (largest Chinese ethnic group) settlement in the Mongolias. Even though on the surface this appears good for Mongolia. It in fact made the situation worse. The racial tension between the Mongols, Han, and Manchus went from bad to worse. The Qing administration was so dedicated to this that they established the Department of Colonization in 1907. The purpose of it was to promote Han movement to the Mongolias and attempt to get the Russians and their allies out of Chinese territory. All the while, the Mongolians were still treated as second class citizens.

The Qing tried to force the Mongols to convert their land into villages and farms. This failed. The Mongolian land is much better for herding animals than growing crops. On top of this, the Qing tried again to build gold mines throughout the Mongolia. The Mongolians did not like this. It would ruin their land but no one cared and they tried it anyway.

Remember how the Qing administration wanted to remove all the Russians. This also didn’t go as planned. A Russian noble, Baron Von Grot, managed a Belarus-Russia company that attempted to build a gold mine in Outer Mongolia, in Tushiyetu Khan and Setsen Khan aimags (Mongolian province) to be specific. One year later in 1901, they ran out of money and abandoned the project. In 1906, Von Grot did the same thing again. He requested permission from the Qing this time. They said no but he did it anyways. He was backed by the Romanovs after all. The Chinese could only tax the gold mines and just let them do it regardless. In 1910, the Qing received 200,000 taels/$130,662,000 from these gold mines alone. That was only 10% of their total profits by that point. Again, no one cared about the Mongolians.

The groundwork for revolution was firmly planted in Mongolian soil. By this point, the Revolution of 1911 had ravaged through China and eventually reached Mongolia.

Decades before that though a baby boy was born in Tibet. The year was 1869. His father managed the finances of the Dali Lama. The boy’s name was Jivzundamba Agvaanluvsanchoijinyamdanzanvanchug. 5 years later, the family moved to Mongolia, where Jivzundamba spent his childhood. He also happened to be the 8^th reincarnation of Bogd Gegen or the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu (Mongolian for, “Mongolian Holy Precious Master”). This made him the Buddhist religious leader in Mongolia, Pope level prestige. He married Ekh Dagina in 1902. They had a son and adopted daughter. I’ll refer to the Mongolian Holy Precious Master as Bogd Khan from here on.

Queen Ekh Dagina with her daughter

Bogd Khan had the best education available. He was trained in many religious studies, and several languages. Apparently, his Mongolian was better than Tibetan. As word of revolution started to spread to Mongolia, it reached Bogd Khan. He started to publicly encourage the Mongolians to revolt. Mongolia wasn’t strong enough to break away from China so they need help. The closest nation that can help is Russia. You know one of the reasons they wanted to be revolt in the first place. Remember when I said their relationship with Russia is complicated.

By 1911, the Xinhai Revolution was raging in China. This led to Mongolia’s Revolution of 1911. The Empire was collapsing. This was the time. The top Khalka Khans (nobles) from the most powerful aimag; Tusheet Khan – Dashnyam, Zasagt Khan – Sonomravdan, Setsen Khan – Navaantseren, and Sain Khan – Namnansuren, along with Bogd Khan wrote and signed a letter seeking assistance from the Russians to separate from China. It would be impossible without them.

In the meantime when waiting for a response, there were several meetings throughout the year to figure out the semantics of becoming a separate nation. They did these under the cover of religious ceremonies for the Bogd Khan. By October 1911, they had formed the General Provisional Administrative Office for the Affairs of Khalka Khan or the GPAOAKK. The Russians replied, and…it…was…a…YES!

December 1, 1911, they sent a Declaration of Independence to the Manchu military governor.

December 29, 1911, Bogd Khan and Ekh Dagina are enthroned as the monarchs of Mongolia (This day is now their Independence Day aka Tusgaar Togtnoliin Udur). This wasn’t just a local issue for China, it was international news. The Frankfurter Zeitung (Frankfurt General Newspaper in English) on January 10, 1912 reported, “The Crisis in Mongolia has its origin in the failure of the last Chinese Emperors to conceal, driven by their political activities, their dissatisfaction with the Khutuktu, who is the religious leader of this nation. It was the Khutuktu who turned to the Russians. He just like the Dalai Lama of Tibet, led by the people who were discontented with Chinese sovereign rule…This second living Buddha, overconfident in himself, entertained unrealistic ideas. The Khutuktu is rather old and likes alcoholic drinks and other earthly pleasures that are unacceptable to his religion.”

A meeting leading up to their split from China

The Revolution of 1911 is a success.

The newly crowned king picked a cabinet of ministers. They were; Interior Minister – Da Lam Tserenchimed, Foreign Minister – Khanddorj, Finance Minister – Chagdarjav, Justice Minister – Namsrai. In July 1912, a Prime Minister was selected, Namnansuren. The initial goal was to eventually incorporate Inner Mongolia into their country. 38 out of 49 Mongolian banners (ethnic sub-group) were in support of independence. However, the Chinese were not gonna let these Mongols have their land.

Meanwhile in China, a republic was established. They wanted to get the band back together via the Republic of 5 Races. The Mongolians were not interested, they moved out last year. The Chinese tried to sweeten the pot several times and the Bogd Khan never bit. Later that year, on November 3, 1912, the Russian-Mongolian Agreement was signed. Russia was the first nation to formally recognize Mongolia as a fellow nation. The agreement also included a military alliance and military protection via the Russians.

Even though the Chinese said they were done with Mongolia. They did continuously threaten to send in troops but the threat of the Russians kept them away. This looks great. Mongolia is on its own and they have a buddy named Russia that will always be there to protect them but the Russians also recognized China’s rule over Mongolia. They also helped Mongolia a lot in the next few years.

On May 25, 1915, China finally recognized Mongolia as a nation.

The Mongolian military was a messy situation to put it lightly. Initially, it had 20,000 troops. The Bogd Khan didn’t want a military or have the money to support one for long. The Russians gave them 2,000,000 Rupees/$1,000,000 American Dollars (current) to build up a military. A Machine Gun company, 2 calvary regiments, and 4 gun battery of artillery were created because that’s what the Russians told them to do. 1,900 Russian soldiers and officers were sent as well to oversee the overhaul. They attempted to whip the army into shape. It didn’t work.

The Mongol soldiers thought the Russians were too cruel. Numerous soldiers deserted in response to the harsh training and treatment. The Russians tried again. They gave the Mongolian Army another 1,000,000 rupees along with a financial officer to see how they’d spend the money. After this failed the Russians backed out for a few reasons. By 1919, the army was a mere 2,000 troops. In 8 years it shrank by 90%.

The Russians backed out on the Mongolians because of something called the Bolshevik Revolution and more importantly their training wasn’t working. On top of that the Bogd Khan weren’t great rulers but they were liked by the people. The Chinese moved in and swiftly occupied Mongolia. In 1919, after 8 years Mongolia is a part of China again.

Ax Hero Himself

One soldier Sukhe Bator (“Ax Hero,” in Mongolian) decided to change this. He was a prominent and well-liked Mongolian soldier. He quickly moved through the ranks. He got together with other revolutionaries and established the Mongolian People’s Party. They fled to the Soviet Union for more training and support.

Sukhe Bator returned a few years later, in 1921, with Mongolian and Soviets soldiers. They fought back and swiftly fought their way through Mongolia. They reached Khiagt, Outer Mongolia on July 11, 1921. The Chinese gave up on Mongolia for the second and final time. This day is celebrated as their National Holiday. Khiaght became the new capital. The Revolution of 1921 is a success. They are a free nation again.

A new government was formed, the People’s Government of Mongolia. They are now a communist nation with a monarchical figurehead. The Bogd Khan had limited power but he still had influence. It was not fully communist yet. He was the last monarch to rule in Mongolia. The queen, Ekh Dagina, and national hero, Sukhe Bator, both died in 1923. Bogd Gegen died in 1924. They fully shifted to a communist state after his death.

Jivzundamba Agvaanluvsanchoijinyamdanzanvanchug aka Bogd Gegen ruled in one of Mongolia’s most interesting, turbulent, and defining eras, that is too often overlooked.

References

Act, The Movement In Mongolia After The 1911 Revolution Is Often Written Within The, Context Of The Mongolian Declaration Of Independence, But This Article Analyzes, and Various Reactions From Pro-Independence Forces And Constitutional Monarchy. The 1911 Revolution and “ Mongolia”: Independence, Constitutional Monarchy, or Republic (n.d.): n. pag. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

Ng. Chapter 18 The Mongolian National Revolution of 1911 and Bogdo Jebtsumdamba Khutuktu, the Last Monarch (n.d.): n. pag. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

“Warfare History Blog.” : Outer Mongolian Revolution: Tibetan-Buddhist Holy Warriors & the Asiatic Cavalry Division, 1919-1922. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

“Mongolia – Modern Mongolia, 1911-84.” Mongolia – Modern Mongolia, 1911-84. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

Kotkin, Stephen, and Bruce A. Elleman. Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Landlocked Cosmopolitan. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1999. Print.

EMU WAR: Birds of a Feather Stick Together

What do you get when you combine the Great Depression, the Australian Wheat Board, the Lewis Automatic Machine Gun, Emus, and World War I? The Great Emu War of 1932, that’s what.

Despite the name Emus weren’t the initial cause. This chain of events starts during World War I because of wheat. With thousands of soldiers returning to Australia, the Australian Wheat Board (established in 1915, under the Labor Party’s Billy Hughes administration) figured this was a golden opportunity to get a mass of new farmers to Western Australia. Farming in this area is known for being difficult. It would boost the national economy and give veterans jobs. The primary crops grown in this region are wheat along with other cereal grains. In order to get the soldiers interested in growing wheat, the Agriculture Department told them that they would receive subsidies for these crops. It worked. Thousands took up this opportunity.

Naturally, things were supposed to go great from here but they didn’t. The Agriculture Department never fulfilled their promise of subsidies. On top off that, the price of wheat was on the downfall and kept falling. The Great Depression hit in 1929, this only sunk the situation further. In the fall of 1932 around September. Roughly 20,000 Emus migrated to this newly transformed farmland utopia. It had plenty of water and food. The food that these flightless fowl loved so much was wheat. Also there was a drought ravaging Australia at the same time. The winter rains were one of the key sources for irrigation. The Emu only made things worse.

Prior to this however, the ex-soldier farmers fought back. A byproduct of the Emus coming through was also allowing rabbits and other pests to eat the crops along with them. The farmers killed as many Emu as possible on their own but this didn’t work given 20,000 more Emus would come through a few years later.

Emu went from a protected species to “vermin.” The only logical conclusion to this problem was the Lewis Automatic Machine Gun. Step 1 was simple, kill Emu and thus stop them from consuming the wheat fields. This was the solution the farmers proposed. The farmers didn’t go to the Minister of Agriculture, who was at the time Joseph Lyons (he was also the current Prime Minister). Charles Hawker, the previous Minister of Agriculture had retired in protest due to getting lower pay on September 23. The farmers didn’t trust the Agriculture Department so they contacted the Minister of Defence, George Pearce. He agreed to it but with two conditions. They were; only trained soldiers can operate the guns, and a cameraman from Movietone will film the campaign.

The Lewis Machine Gun was chosen because the veteran farmers saw how powerful it was in WW1. This was their only hope. The Royal Australian Artillery sent 7^th Heavy Battery commander Major G.P.W. Meredith to manage the campaign.

So far only humans have been discussed, here’s a little information about Emus. They range between 5 and 6.5 feet tall when fully grown. Emus travel in large groups across the harsh Australian outback. They migrate to the North for the summer and South for the winter. They can jump up to 7 feet. In a sprint their stride can go up to 9 feet. Plus they have excellent eyesight. Intelligent and savvy, they swiftly adapt to their environments and challenges presented their way. These birds aren’t dumb dumbs.

On October 18, 1932, Maj. Meredith brought 2 Lewis Machine Guns, 10,000 bullets, 2 soldiers to operate the weaponry, and a Movietone cameraman as per the agreement. They hoped to encounter a mob of Emu soon but it rained and the Emu scattered before Meredith’s men could engage. The next few days followed a repetitive pattern. They see a bunch of Emu, get closer to Emu, shoot at the Emu, and the Emu run away. Meredith underestimated how fast and smart these birds were. After a few skirmishes, the Emus figured out the range of the guns. So they if saw Meredith and his men they knew how far to run to and be safe. So Meredith came up with a brilliant idea, catch up to them with jeeps and shoot them from there. This didn’t work. The gunners couldn’t stabilize the machine gun enough to get a clear shot when speeding through the outback. No Emus were killed using this tactic. You can only imagine how frustrated Meredith had to be by this point. The Emus were winning. Well, they kept eating delicious healthy wheat.

The humans figured that if they wait at a watering hole a pack of Emus would eventually stop by. A pack of 100 or so Emus did stop by a nearby watering hole where the soldiers were waiting. They assumed that one machine gun would be enough. After 12 bullets it jammed and the Emus escaped. They fixed the jam but it was too late. They continued ambushes but it wasn’t enough. Everything they tried didn’t work. Every place the Emu were ambushed, they never returned. It was an endless game of catch-up. Remember the thing that caused this whole thing was wheat.

The Parliament recalled the effort on November 10, 1932 because it was a waste of time, financial sinkhole, and embarrassing. They had used 2,500 of the allotted 10,000 bullets. A few days later though it was resumed. It was still a failure. They killed more Emu but not enough to stop them going through wheat field. On December 10, 1932 it was recalled for good. Meredith had spent 9,860 bullets out of 10,000. No humans were killed. Some Emu were killed but the numbers aren’t definite. Meredith claimed over 2,000 birds were killed but this is most likely bullshit. It was never confirmed. It’s speculated to be in the hundreds not thousands.

The Australian Royal Army lost the “war.” It was barely a war. Meredith himself said it would be good target practice. Which it was but at the cost of federal money and even more irritated farmers that had to let their livelihood die out. The Emu continued their rampage on wheat. The farmers requested military action in 1934, 1943, and 1948. They were declined each time.

The primary reason it isn’t famous, has to be it’s embarrassing. It’s perfectly understandable. This was a perfect storm of overconfidence, poor planning, and bad luck. On paper it was supposed to be a breeze but these feathered flightless fowls outlasted and outsmarted the Australian military and farmers in Western Australia. At its core this sounds like a B-movie you’d see on MST3K but it isn’t.The craziest thing about this was that the Australian government or anyone at all thought this was a good idea. The only good that can be gleamed from this is that it shows only quickly a grassroots, local issue can get federal attention. Humans lost a war to Emu, this really happened.

References

http://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/emu

http://www.soilquality.org.au/au/wa

http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Bills_Legislation/bd/BD9798/98bd220

http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2014/01/great-emu-war-1932/

http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/running-ponies/2014/08/04/the-great-emu-war-in-which-some-large-flightless-birds-unwittingly-foiled-the-australian-army/

https://medium.com/war-is-boring/australia-once-lost-a-war-to-the-mighty-emu-fd0f07203ca4

http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/18516559

http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/4504009

http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/4509731

http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/2318780

http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/2315839

http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/4507996

http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/2317086

http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/hawker-charles-allan-6603

http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/lyons-joseph-aloysius-joe-7278