It’s no secret that I love African history (I have over 30 books specifically on it). I’ve already covered 2 African warrior queens, Amina and Ana Nzinga (you can find them in the Rhymes with Nerdy archives). This time, I’ll highlight a lesser known kingdom from central Africa…

The Kuba Kingdom

Starting sometime in the 16^th century several different peoples from just below of the Sahara, migrated south. They ultimately settled at the bottom edge of the Great Equatorial Forest and the start of the savanna in between the Kasia river – to the east, Sankuru – to the north, and Lulua – to the south, in modern day the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This large group consisted of 18 or 19 different ethnic peoples including – The Ngeende, Kel, Pyaang, Bulang, Bieng, Ilebo, Idiing, Kaam, Ngoombe Kayuweng, Shoowa, Bokila, Maluk, Bushong, Ngongo, and others. Upon their arrival, they came across the Twa. Another people, who were already settled there. Things were civil and the Twa assimilated into the already dense cultural melting pot.

The name, Kuba, originally came from a neighboring kingdom, the Luba. The Kuba referred to themselves as the Bakuba, which translates to, “People of the Throwing Knife.” They spoke Bakuba, a branch of the massive Bantu language tree, consisting of over 200 languages. The other major powers around them were the Kongo and Pende kingdoms, both of whom would prove to be very influential in the formation of the eventual Kuba kingdom.

Initially, they were just a loose confederation of separate villages that shared the same culture. There was no centralized government to speak of. They didn’t become a formally organized kingdom until roughly 1625. Shyaam a-Mbul a Ngoong-Shyaam, turned this cultural composite into a kingdom. It isn’t known where exactly he was from, but he was orphaned early on. A local Kuba queen adopted and raised him as a Bakuba. He left as an adult. Shyaam traveled to the nearby Kongo and Pende kingdoms, studying their cultures and political structures. Upon returning home, he revamped his homeland.

Some of the renovations he brought were: better iron forging techniques, new crops (cassava, maize, tobacco, beans), multi-branch centralized government, professional military and police, annual census, a complex economy, new tax policies, executive councils, trial by jury, merit-based ranking in government jobs, and bureaucracy. All of this was established without a written constitution.

A mesmerizing Kuba design.

The new kingdom was divided into 9 provinces – Kel, Bushong, Ngongo, Coofa, Pyang, Kete, Shoowa, Ngende, and Nsheng. These were in turn divided into smaller counties. The king, Nyim, was always ethnically Bushong and the capital was where the current king had grown up. Each ethnic group was in turn represented in the aristocratic courts. The queen mother was an essential role in the court. She represented the women on a federal level. The line of inheritance was through your mother NOT your father. That included who would be the next king.

The staple of the civilization was weaving, specifically raffia weaving. Raffia was essential for them to survive. Everything was woven from raffia, including the money. That was primarily because of the lack of local metals in the region. The Kuba designs are the most identifiable aspect of the their civilization. Their designs grew more and more complex as time went on. The Kuba design is perfectly symmetrical and asymmetrical at the same time in a beautiful, mesmerizing way. Once you see it, you can always identity it as Kuba in origin. The size and detail of the design on your house was an indicator of your rank in society. These designs were key in the development of Cubism. Picasso was a huge fan and collector of African and specifically Kuba art.

Wood craving and mask making were firmly in second place to weaving. They were equally as intricate and distinctive as the cloth designs. Art in general was highly appreciated and valued. The direction of art was heavily influenced by the Nyim. The most famous case of this was under Nyim Misha mi-Shyaang a-Mbul. He commissioned a new type of sculpture, the ndop. This was a large wooden sculpture of the Nyim. These were made to keep track of the past kings and honor the king. An ibol, personal symbol revealed at a Nyim’s coronation, was always at the forefront. Shyaam the Great’s ndop, prominently featured a mankala board. This represented his cunning, intelligence, and foresight, since mankala requires all 3 qualities. As the kingdom grew stronger, the uniquity of the art grew at a faster pace than rest of society.

Religion was a relatively lesser aspect of society. The creator god, Mfcoom/Bumba the Sky Father, created all and more or less left after that. The main deity worshiped was Woot. He was the first man created by Mfcoom. There were other gods but like Mfcoom, they weren’t that formally worshiped either. The Kuba saw the efforts of humanity more important and relevant than that of the supernatural. Everyone was buried with the items necessary for the afterlife. There was no heaven or hell. If you were good, you became a ghost and reincarnated at some point in the future. If you weren’t, you were stuck in limbo forever. The Nyim was the spiritual leader and head of the sorcerers. In addition, they are the head Ngesh, nature spirit, that bridged the divine with the human. Dogs were seen as messengers of the gods and given special treatment above other animals.

Primarily the regular diet consisted of fish, given the 3 rivers surrounding them. They regulated the fish population with man-made fish farms, that the women would harvest twice a year along with fishing in the rivers. Vegetables made up the other majority. Surrounded by fertile farmland, there was plenty of irrigation from the 3 rivers. Meat was only eaten during the dry season. During the rainy season, both men and women had to maintain the vegetable crops. Farming was much less intensive, the rest of the year.

As with the rest of their contemporaries, they were eventually discovered and colonized. They were one of the last left untouched by Western Europe. In 1892, William Sheppard, an African American Presbyterian missionary, writing about the exploitation of Africans under Belgium’s King Leopold II (That is a story for another day). Sheppard opened the door for the Germans to later colonize the region in 1907. The art regressed and morphed into a more European style but never completely lost its Kuba identity.

Sources

http://www.randafricanart.com/kuba_Ngady_aMwaash.html

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/kuba/hd_kuba.htm

https://africa.uima.uiowa.edu/peoples/show/Kuba

http://econ.columbia.edu/files/econ/content/kuba_final.pdf

http://kwekudee-tripdownmemorylane.blogspot.com/2014/02/kuba-people-most-artistic-and-highly.html

http://kubaafricanart.weebly.com/background.html

http://cool.conservation-us.org/waac/wn/wn08/wn08-1/wn08-102.html

https://museum.gwu.edu/weaving-abstraction-kuba-textiles-and-woven-art-central-africa

http://www.zyama.com/kuba/

Every 4 years, the very best of the very best of the very best in the wide world of sports compete for the gold. Nearly every nation is represented in this titanic tournament. Last time I tackled the Olympics, I focused on the 100M Dash. I ‘m stretching my horizons into gymnastics with…

Olympic Special Vol. 2: Vera Caslavska and Agnes Keleti

VERA CASLAVSKA: 1960 – Rome, 1964 – Tokyo, 1968 – Mexico City

Vera in 1967.

Mid-way through World War II on May 3, 1942, Prague’s Caslavska family introduced a baby girl. They named her Vera. From an early age, it was clear that Vera was a natural athlete. Initially, she started in dance, followed by figure skating. At 15 however, she switched to gymnastics. Like with the previous 2 sports, she dominated. Part of this was her and part was her instructor, Eva Bosakova (1952 – Helsinki, 1956 – Melbourne, and 1960 – Rome). Bosakova was already a multiple medal holder in both the Olympics and World Championships.

After a year or so of training Vera competed alongside Bosakova in 1959 at the European Championship. She won her first (of many) gold medals in the balance beams but slipped up on the uneven bars leaving her in 8^th. The team won the silver medal. This success continued into the Olympics in Rome where she won the silver in the team category again. She continued to compete and exponentially became the top gymnast of her era. In the World and European Championships and the Olympics, she won numerous gold and silver medals. Things changed around the 1968 Olympics however.

January 5, 1968, Antonin Novotny was officially replaced by Alexander Dubcek as 1^st Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. Dubcek’s goal was to create, “Communism with a Human Face.” In turn, he introduced more Democratic leaning policies and expanding people’s freedoms like speech. The Soviets were not pleased so they invaded Czechoslovakia with 600,000 soldiers and help from other Warsaw Pact nations. Vera was in support of the new reforms and signed the protest manifesto, “Two Thousand Words,” by Ludvik Vaculik. All this happened a few months before the Mexico City Olympics that fall (seriously, the 1968 summer games were held in October that year).

Vera was in trouble so her fled to the mountains. Similarly to Rocky in Rocky IV, she trained using the natural world, but out of necessity not because of manliness. After 3 weeks, she got word that the Czech allowed her to participate in the Mexico City games again. It was during these games that she became the first and only Olympian to ever win a medal in every gymnastics event. In addition to this, she refused to observe the rising of the Czech and Soviet flags when she tied for the gold in the Floor Exercise with Larisa Petrik. Many took notice, including the Soviets.

Around this time, she married Josef Odlozil, a fellow Czech Olympian. Back home in Prague, things changed. The government was suspicious of Caslavska and barred her from federal jobs for her protests and politics.

She divorced Josef in 1987. 3 years later the Communists lost power and she finally publicly regarded as a hero of the people. Also wasn’t barred from federal jobs. They had several children. One of them, Martin, stabbed his father in a dance club in 1993. Josef died. Martin was sent to prison. Vera focused on keeping her family together after this tragic event. She still resides in Prague today and lives a private life.

AGNES KELTEI: 1948 – London, 1952 – Helsinki, 1956 – Melbourne

Hungry’s Agnes Keleti came from humble beginnings, she was born to a Jewish family on January 9, 1921. Like other future Olympians she was attracted to sports early on. A natural gymnast, she excelled at the VAC Jewish Sports Club quickly. Her father, Ferencs, wanted both his daughters involved in sports. He was a lifelong athlete. Her mother complimented their father’s push for athletics with academics. Thanks to her, Agnes was a great student, cellist, and singer.

At 16, she won her first national championship. By the end of her professional career, there were 9 more national championships. She was on her way to the Olympics but World War II broke out. Hunngry was left out of it for awhile until Germany invaded. Agnes managed to get papers under the guise of a Christian woman named Piroshka. She worked for a Nazi-sympathizing family as a maid for the rest of the war. Her father was taken to Auschwitz. Her mother and sister luckily escaped thanks to the Swedish diplomat, Raoul Wallenberg (he was responsible for saving thousands of Hungarian Jews). By the end of the war the only family left was her mother and sister.

Agnes doing a split at 91.

Reunited with her family, Agnes resumed where her career left off. She won more national titles over the next few years and nearly made it to the London Olympic. 2 days before they began, she injured herself but recovered in time to compete in European and World Championships. In the Helsinki games, she became the oldest female gymnast to win an Olympian medal at 31. She won 4 medals in total. That record was broken again at the Melbourne games with 6 more medals. At 35, she set the record (again) for oldest female gymnast to win an Olympic medal.

The Soviet Union invaded Hungry during the Melbourne games. Instead of return home, she and the other Hungarians remained down under. She received political asylum to reside in Israel, where she still lives. In 1959, she married Robert Biro, a fellow Hungarian Jew that escaped the Soviets. They have 2 sons, Rafael and Daniel. In Israel, she become a corner stone in the establishment of Israeli Gymnastics. She ended up teaching at Tel Aviv University for years.

Agnes is the second most accomplished Jewish Olympic athlete with 10 medals, right behind Mark Spitz’ 11.

Not only did these women set world records, they managed to thwart both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union from destroying them mentally and physically. They are extraordinary women that need to be remembered and celebrated.

Sources

http://www.ighof.com/honorees/1998_Vera_Caslavska.php

https://www.olympic.org/vera-caslavska

http://brooklynquarterly.org/personal-protest-at-the-olympics/

http://thebiography.us/en/caslavska-vera

http://www.drmirkin.com/histories-and-mysteries/vera-caslavska-marriage-of-two-great-olympic-athletes.html

http://www.radio.cz/en/section/curraffrs/czechoslovak-sports-legend-vera-caslavska-celebrates-60th-birthday

http://web.archive.org/web/20040508164234/http://www.intlgymnast.com/events/2004/europeans/champions/caslavska.html

http://articles.latimes.com/1990-04-05/sports/sp-900_1_prague-spring

http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/prague-spring-begins-in-czechoslovakia

http://www.dhr.history.vt.edu/modules/eu/mod05_1968/evidence_detail_13.html 2,000 Words

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dykBBhaoczg

http://www.lib.umich.edu/soviet-invasion-czechoslovakia/pg1.html

http://www.gymn.ca/gymnasticgreats/wag/keleti.htm

http://esra-magazine.com/blog/post/agnes-keleti

http://www.jewishpress.com/sections/jewess-press/impact-women-history/agnes-keleti-the-foundation-stone-of-gymnastics-in-israel/2012/07/22/

http://www.ighof.com/honorees/2002_Agnes_Keleti.php

http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/keleti-agnes

http://www.jewishsports.net/BioPages/AgnesKeleti(Klein).htm

When it comes to Greek history most people know about Aristotle, Homer, Alexander the Great (I know he was Macedonian but that’s a story for another day), and the Olympics. Arguably the most fascinating aspect of Greek history is the War of Independence. One of the integral figures in the fight was…

LASKARINA BOUBOULINA: Greek Goddess of the Sea, Revolution, and Spetses

Laskarina was born to Stavrianos and Paraskevo Pinotsis on May 11, 1771 on the Greek island of Hydra. The Greece she knew wasn’t the center of intelligentsia from the Classical period. It was a Greece under the boot of the Ottoman Empire since the 15^th century CE. By this point, things were changing. There were several attempts at revolt but they failed. The latest around Laskarina’s birth, the Orlof Revolution, involved her father Stavrianos.

He was arrested and thrown in prison for his part. Paraskevo visited him frequently. His health was failing but they had Laskarina towards the end of his life. Her father died in prison when she was still a baby. When Laskarina was 4, her mother remarried a Navy man, Capt. Dimitrios Lazarou-Orlof. This took them from their home island of Hydra to Spetses nearby.

She loved hearing stories about the sea and majestic tales of bravery on the mighty ocean. Not much is known about her childhood. At 17, she married Dimitrios Yiannouzas. He was a rich sea captain with his own fleet. They had 2 sons, Yiannis and Yeorgo Yiannouzas.

After a few years, Dimitrios was killed fighting pirates. Laskarina inherited his fortune and ships. She remarried in 1801. His name was also Dimitrios, Dimitrios Bouboulina. They had 5 kids together. He was also a rich sea captain with a fleet of ships that died fighting pirates. In 1811, Laskarina was widowed again. She inherited even more money and ships. Laskarina successfully and smartly invested which in turn made her and her family one of the wealthiest on Spetses.

Now, this brought the attention the Ottomans at her door. In 1816, they claimed that they had the right to seize her money, ships, and home because her second husband was fighting under the Russian flag during the Turko-Russo War. He was a traitor and enemy of the empire. This was true but Laskarina had a plan. She sought out the Philhellene Russian Ambassador in Constantinople. He liked her and understood her anger. Czar Alexander, gave her a house in the Crimean Black Sea region of Russia to stay in until the Ottomans gave up. At this time, she joined the Filiki Etaireia, a revolutionary Greek group that was scheming another rebellion. In English, Filiki Etaireia means, “The Friendly Society.”

After 3 months in Russia, she returned to the Spetses. Filled with the spirit of revolt, she bought arms, built warships, and raised a private army. She was an ally to the revolutionaries, and aided them with soldiers, ships, and money. The lead ship of the fleet, The Agamemnon, was built for her specifically. She would lead naval assaults on the Ottomans. Not only was she a beneficiary to the cause but also she trained as a soldier and made it the rank of Admiral.

The Ottomans became suspicious of all this odd behavior of guns, ships, and strange people around her. She paid off the Ottoman officials inquiring about this with a hefty bribe. They left her alone after their payday.

The Greek War of Independence broke out March 13, 1821. Her first major victory was at Nafplion. The Ottoman naval fort was armed with 300 cannons. The Greek naval siege didn’t work so they landed nearby at Mili. Laskarina organized her troops and led a land siege at the powerful fort. After a long and arduous battle, they took the near impenetrable fort. She also fought in the Battles of Monemvassia, Siege of Tripoli, and Haradros. Her son, Yiannis, was killed at Haradros.

As a reward for the victory of Nafplion, she was given a house, the Greek forces took. In 1825, she sold the house. Nafplion was rife with political unrest. The Greek war hero and important leader for the Greeks, General Theodoros Kolokotronis, was sent to prison at the time. She saw the writing on the wall and left for Spetses.

Turkish-Egyptian forces were on the war path to take back what the Ottomans had lost. Laskarina and his officers were working on war plans when they got word of this oncoming attack. The Koutsis, another rich family on Spetses, had a major problem with Laskarina. Her son, Yeorgo had eloped with a Koutsis. One of Koutsis shot Laskarina for what her son did. She died from the gunshot wound.

Laskarina Bouboulina was made an admiral in both the Russian and Greek Navies for service. She has been a national Greek hero since her untimely, petty death. Luckily, the Greeks with help from Russia and others won. Even though she didn’t do it alone, Laskarina Bouboulina was a major player in making the Greeks a freed people and establishing Greece as we know it today. She rose from the ashes into an icon of bravery, courage, and determination.

Sources

http://www.ahistoryofgreece.com/revolution.htm

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/greece/5989510/Greek-woman-sets-fire-to-Britons-genitals-Laskarina-Bouboulina-the-heroine.html

http://www.ahepad22.org/articles/bouboulina.pdf

http://www.greeka.com/saronic/spetses/spetses-history/spetses-bouboulina.htm

https://badassladiesofhistory.wordpress.com/2014/06/13/laskarina-bouboulina/

http://www.ahistoryofgreece.com/biography/bouboulina.htm

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CAkWU-XaxLE

http://neoskosmos.com/news/en/Laskarina-Bouboulina

Recommendations: Have Mercy by Shelley Ann Clark, The Bluestocking and the Rake by Norma Darcy, An Unexpected Song by Rika, The Luxury Gap by Sharla and Echoes of Pemberley by Cynthia Ingram Hensley

Song Credit: “Oh, Mr. Darcy” by The Doubleclicks

They also discuss Austen’s lasting legacy and untraditional variations of Pride & Prejudice.

Recommendations for this episode: A Searing Acquaintance by J.L. Ashton, and the many works of Abigail Reynolds, Lady Bridget’s Diary by Maya Rodale, At the Edge of the Sea by Karen M. Cox

This week’s recommendations:

A Will of Iron by Linda Beutler

The Improvement of Her Mind by Ayden (available on the JAFF index – password required)

Recommendations for the episode: The Madness of Mr. Darcy by Alexa Adams, A Noteworthy Courtship by Laura Sanchez

MONGOLIA UNDER BOGD KHAN: Two Revolutions for the Price of One

When it comes to the Mongolian history, most people stop at the death of Genghis Khan or if you’re a history nerd, the Golden Horde in Russia. However, the Mongolians have a deeply interesting and ignored history. This will cover a specified time in Mongolian history. In a short amount of time they went through two different revolutions, the Revolution of 1911 and Revolution of 1921, including a brief flirtation with a monarchy. This laid the path for what they would become in the 20^th century.

Before I start at 1911, I need to set a foundation. Mongolia was not independent pre-1911. It was a military protectorate under Imperial China for centuries. There were several races under Chinese control most prominently Mongols, Manchus, and Han. They more or less operated on its own since it was the furthest part of the empire. Mongolia was like the kid in the back of class that the teacher sometimes forgets is there. Mongolia was divided into two different protectorates, Outer Mongolia and Inner Mongolia. Outer is what we now know as Mongolia and Inner was right below it (Some is modern China and some is modern Mongolia). By the late 20^th century Imperial China was nearly at its end. The shadow of Russia was slowly but surely closing in.

Meanwhile in Europe Great Britain and Russia were in the midst of the Great Game. This was a battle of diplomatic dick size in Central Asia. Russia wanted to prove itself following their embarrassing defeat in the Crimean War. This included a series of treaties in the 1890s, one of which included recognizing Tibet as a part of China. The Russians had been moving into China via Outer Mongolia for a while by this point. They set up shop throughout the Mongolias. The Chinese didn’t like it but couldn’t do anything about it. Also numerous Chinese businesses had moved into Outer Mongolia. Now, this sounds good but it wasn’t. The Qing government reach barely touched Mongolia. It was a haven for businesses that didn’t have to follow the law. The Russians and Chinese were taking advantage of the local Mongol population. They used monasteries as trading depots. There were a lot of them given that 45% of the male population in Outer Mongolia were Buddhist monks. The Mongols didn’t have many natural resources aside from animal products, which weren’t worth a lot, and had no real foot in the door in the trade between China and Russia. This is only the beginning if Mongolia’s complicated relationship with Russia.

Mongolian Nobles with Russians

The Chinese saw this as a golden opportunity. The Mongols could only sell their goods for low prices. The Chinese sold their goods on credit. This went on for decades. By 1911, the Mongols had accumulated 15 million taels in debt to Chinese to traders. 1 tael is $653.31 in current American dollars. That means the total debt was $9,799,650,000. If divided between every household in Outer Mongolia, it’s 500 taels/$326,655 per home. This was only one of the problems that led to the Mongols revolting.

The Qing regime realized following their crushing defeat during the Boxer Rebellion that they have problems. It was too late stop the avalanche. A series of restrictions on its citizens were abolished. These included, allowing Mongols to speak to Chinese, allowing marriage between Chinese, Manchus, and Mongols, allowing Chinese to move their families in Mongolia (Outer and Inner), and Han (largest Chinese ethnic group) settlement in the Mongolias. Even though on the surface this appears good for Mongolia. It in fact made the situation worse. The racial tension between the Mongols, Han, and Manchus went from bad to worse. The Qing administration was so dedicated to this that they established the Department of Colonization in 1907. The purpose of it was to promote Han movement to the Mongolias and attempt to get the Russians and their allies out of Chinese territory. All the while, the Mongolians were still treated as second class citizens.

The Qing tried to force the Mongols to convert their land into villages and farms. This failed. The Mongolian land is much better for herding animals than growing crops. On top of this, the Qing tried again to build gold mines throughout the Mongolia. The Mongolians did not like this. It would ruin their land but no one cared and they tried it anyway.

Remember how the Qing administration wanted to remove all the Russians. This also didn’t go as planned. A Russian noble, Baron Von Grot, managed a Belarus-Russia company that attempted to build a gold mine in Outer Mongolia, in Tushiyetu Khan and Setsen Khan aimags (Mongolian province) to be specific. One year later in 1901, they ran out of money and abandoned the project. In 1906, Von Grot did the same thing again. He requested permission from the Qing this time. They said no but he did it anyways. He was backed by the Romanovs after all. The Chinese could only tax the gold mines and just let them do it regardless. In 1910, the Qing received 200,000 taels/$130,662,000 from these gold mines alone. That was only 10% of their total profits by that point. Again, no one cared about the Mongolians.

The groundwork for revolution was firmly planted in Mongolian soil. By this point, the Revolution of 1911 had ravaged through China and eventually reached Mongolia.

Decades before that though a baby boy was born in Tibet. The year was 1869. His father managed the finances of the Dali Lama. The boy’s name was Jivzundamba Agvaanluvsanchoijinyamdanzanvanchug. 5 years later, the family moved to Mongolia, where Jivzundamba spent his childhood. He also happened to be the 8^th reincarnation of Bogd Gegen or the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu (Mongolian for, “Mongolian Holy Precious Master”). This made him the Buddhist religious leader in Mongolia, Pope level prestige. He married Ekh Dagina in 1902. They had a son and adopted daughter. I’ll refer to the Mongolian Holy Precious Master as Bogd Khan from here on.

Queen Ekh Dagina with her daughter

Bogd Khan had the best education available. He was trained in many religious studies, and several languages. Apparently, his Mongolian was better than Tibetan. As word of revolution started to spread to Mongolia, it reached Bogd Khan. He started to publicly encourage the Mongolians to revolt. Mongolia wasn’t strong enough to break away from China so they need help. The closest nation that can help is Russia. You know one of the reasons they wanted to be revolt in the first place. Remember when I said their relationship with Russia is complicated.

By 1911, the Xinhai Revolution was raging in China. This led to Mongolia’s Revolution of 1911. The Empire was collapsing. This was the time. The top Khalka Khans (nobles) from the most powerful aimag; Tusheet Khan – Dashnyam, Zasagt Khan – Sonomravdan, Setsen Khan – Navaantseren, and Sain Khan – Namnansuren, along with Bogd Khan wrote and signed a letter seeking assistance from the Russians to separate from China. It would be impossible without them.

In the meantime when waiting for a response, there were several meetings throughout the year to figure out the semantics of becoming a separate nation. They did these under the cover of religious ceremonies for the Bogd Khan. By October 1911, they had formed the General Provisional Administrative Office for the Affairs of Khalka Khan or the GPAOAKK. The Russians replied, and…it…was…a…YES!

December 1, 1911, they sent a Declaration of Independence to the Manchu military governor.

December 29, 1911, Bogd Khan and Ekh Dagina are enthroned as the monarchs of Mongolia (This day is now their Independence Day aka Tusgaar Togtnoliin Udur). This wasn’t just a local issue for China, it was international news. The Frankfurter Zeitung (Frankfurt General Newspaper in English) on January 10, 1912 reported, “The Crisis in Mongolia has its origin in the failure of the last Chinese Emperors to conceal, driven by their political activities, their dissatisfaction with the Khutuktu, who is the religious leader of this nation. It was the Khutuktu who turned to the Russians. He just like the Dalai Lama of Tibet, led by the people who were discontented with Chinese sovereign rule…This second living Buddha, overconfident in himself, entertained unrealistic ideas. The Khutuktu is rather old and likes alcoholic drinks and other earthly pleasures that are unacceptable to his religion.”

A meeting leading up to their split from China

The Revolution of 1911 is a success.

The newly crowned king picked a cabinet of ministers. They were; Interior Minister – Da Lam Tserenchimed, Foreign Minister – Khanddorj, Finance Minister – Chagdarjav, Justice Minister – Namsrai. In July 1912, a Prime Minister was selected, Namnansuren. The initial goal was to eventually incorporate Inner Mongolia into their country. 38 out of 49 Mongolian banners (ethnic sub-group) were in support of independence. However, the Chinese were not gonna let these Mongols have their land.

Meanwhile in China, a republic was established. They wanted to get the band back together via the Republic of 5 Races. The Mongolians were not interested, they moved out last year. The Chinese tried to sweeten the pot several times and the Bogd Khan never bit. Later that year, on November 3, 1912, the Russian-Mongolian Agreement was signed. Russia was the first nation to formally recognize Mongolia as a fellow nation. The agreement also included a military alliance and military protection via the Russians.

Even though the Chinese said they were done with Mongolia. They did continuously threaten to send in troops but the threat of the Russians kept them away. This looks great. Mongolia is on its own and they have a buddy named Russia that will always be there to protect them but the Russians also recognized China’s rule over Mongolia. They also helped Mongolia a lot in the next few years.

On May 25, 1915, China finally recognized Mongolia as a nation.

The Mongolian military was a messy situation to put it lightly. Initially, it had 20,000 troops. The Bogd Khan didn’t want a military or have the money to support one for long. The Russians gave them 2,000,000 Rupees/$1,000,000 American Dollars (current) to build up a military. A Machine Gun company, 2 calvary regiments, and 4 gun battery of artillery were created because that’s what the Russians told them to do. 1,900 Russian soldiers and officers were sent as well to oversee the overhaul. They attempted to whip the army into shape. It didn’t work.

The Mongol soldiers thought the Russians were too cruel. Numerous soldiers deserted in response to the harsh training and treatment. The Russians tried again. They gave the Mongolian Army another 1,000,000 rupees along with a financial officer to see how they’d spend the money. After this failed the Russians backed out for a few reasons. By 1919, the army was a mere 2,000 troops. In 8 years it shrank by 90%.

The Russians backed out on the Mongolians because of something called the Bolshevik Revolution and more importantly their training wasn’t working. On top of that the Bogd Khan weren’t great rulers but they were liked by the people. The Chinese moved in and swiftly occupied Mongolia. In 1919, after 8 years Mongolia is a part of China again.

Ax Hero Himself

One soldier Sukhe Bator (“Ax Hero,” in Mongolian) decided to change this. He was a prominent and well-liked Mongolian soldier. He quickly moved through the ranks. He got together with other revolutionaries and established the Mongolian People’s Party. They fled to the Soviet Union for more training and support.

Sukhe Bator returned a few years later, in 1921, with Mongolian and Soviets soldiers. They fought back and swiftly fought their way through Mongolia. They reached Khiagt, Outer Mongolia on July 11, 1921. The Chinese gave up on Mongolia for the second and final time. This day is celebrated as their National Holiday. Khiaght became the new capital. The Revolution of 1921 is a success. They are a free nation again.

A new government was formed, the People’s Government of Mongolia. They are now a communist nation with a monarchical figurehead. The Bogd Khan had limited power but he still had influence. It was not fully communist yet. He was the last monarch to rule in Mongolia. The queen, Ekh Dagina, and national hero, Sukhe Bator, both died in 1923. Bogd Gegen died in 1924. They fully shifted to a communist state after his death.

Jivzundamba Agvaanluvsanchoijinyamdanzanvanchug aka Bogd Gegen ruled in one of Mongolia’s most interesting, turbulent, and defining eras, that is too often overlooked.

References

Act, The Movement In Mongolia After The 1911 Revolution Is Often Written Within The, Context Of The Mongolian Declaration Of Independence, But This Article Analyzes, and Various Reactions From Pro-Independence Forces And Constitutional Monarchy. The 1911 Revolution and “ Mongolia”: Independence, Constitutional Monarchy, or Republic (n.d.): n. pag. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

Ng. Chapter 18 The Mongolian National Revolution of 1911 and Bogdo Jebtsumdamba Khutuktu, the Last Monarch (n.d.): n. pag. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

“Warfare History Blog.” : Outer Mongolian Revolution: Tibetan-Buddhist Holy Warriors & the Asiatic Cavalry Division, 1919-1922. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

“Mongolia – Modern Mongolia, 1911-84.” Mongolia – Modern Mongolia, 1911-84. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

Kotkin, Stephen, and Bruce A. Elleman. Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Landlocked Cosmopolitan. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1999. Print.

UNITED STATES CAMEL CORPS EXPERIMENT: For A Few Camels More

Major Crosman

This is exactly what you think it is. There was a United States Army unit that specialized in camels. Was it a success? What does Jefferson Davis have to do with this exactly? How much money was spent on this? Read and find out the bizarre story of the Camel Corps.

The year is 1836. Army Lieutenant George H. Crosman along with E. H. Miller were on tour in the untamed West. They work for the Quartermaster Department. The journey is rough. Horses were okay for the trip but Crosman had a better idea. He suggested camels would make this much easier. They are perfect for the environment. Crosman and Miller completed their tour and then developed a report on why camels are the best option to make settling the West faster and easier. He cited, they can carry up to 900 lbs, go 30 to 40 miles in a day and go for up to 8 days with little food and water. Crosman and Miller turned in their report to the War Department. Before they had time to celebrate, the War Department responded with a resounding Nope.

This was not the first time, camels were considered for military use outside of their natural habitat. The Spaniards had tried a few centuries before in the Americas but it failed. They found camels to be too difficult to deal with and abandoned the project. The British tried using camels in Jamaica but that also failed for the same reason.

Camel in the Wild

Crosman was not deterred by rejection. He doubled down and continued his camel research on camels.

The Mexican – American War began in 1846. Crosman served and clearly saw how camels could improve military operations. Around this time, he met a fellow camel fanatic, Major Henry C. Wayne. He was a fellow officer from the Quartermaster Department. Major Wayne had also done a tour in the West and saw the need for camels. He had a connection in the War Department that could help. That was Jefferson Davis.

Davis had also spent time in the West and was completely on board with the idea. He tried to get it through Congress in 1848 and still no one was convinced. Camels were a secondary concern to the Mexican War. The trio of Davis, Crosman, and Wayne, still fervently believed in this project despite rejections.

Jefferson Davis

A few years later in March 1851, Jefferson introduced another camel bill for Congress. This was proposing a separate, experimental Army unit specializing in using camels. He wanted $30,000 to purchase 50 camels, hiring 10 Arab camel handlers, and other needed expenses for taking proper care of camel herds. Davis emphasized the history of camels, how they can be fully utilized for American military use, and how camels are superior to horses. Davis wanted to not only use camels for transporting goods and supplies but he also wanted to put small cannons on them to help fight the Native Americans. Dromedaries or Arabian camels (one hump) were requested. Congress shot it down, again.

Senator William Henry Bissell from Illinois, later the 11^th Governor of Illinois and Congressional rival to Jefferson Davis, proposed nearly the exact same bill but instead of $30,000, it was $20,000, only a year later. The House voted Yes, but died in Senate.

The news of a potential camel bill going through created a craze over the foreign creature. In 1853,  the historian and linguist, John Russell Barlett was a big supporter for the bill. That same year, George Robins Gliddon, an Egyptologist, had spent 23 years in Egypt. He saw how effective camels are firsthand and wrote to Congress that it was, “feasible.” In 1854, pioneer environmentalist George Perkins Marsh, spoke at the Smithsonian Institution in support of camels. He even published a book on it 2 years later, “The Camel, His Organization, Habits, and Uses, Considered with Reference to His Introduction to the United States.” In New York, a club formed exclusively about camels, The American Camel Club. They paid for a shipment of camels in 1857. It landed in Texas later that year.

Going back a few years, Davis was selected as Franklin Pierce’s Secretary of War, in 1853. Jefferson Davis tried to get his camel bill through and on March 3, 1855 it went through both houses of Congress and became a reality. Davis now had $30,000 to build the Camel Corps. He wanted to be sure that everything would go perfectly so he sent Major Wayne and Navy Lieutenant David Dixon Porter to Europe and the Mediterranean for further research. Porter and Wayne shortly left for their European research trip/vacation.

They spent most of the trip separately to cover more ground. Wayne started his journey in England. He visited the Zoological Gardens while there he learned how to properly take care of them. If they can live in England, they can live in the USA. Next stop Paris, Wayne met with French soldiers that served in Algeria. They agreed that using camels would work. The French soldiers suggested that Arabian camels are the best for the purpose and climate.

Porter on the other hand initiated his branch in the Eastern Mediterranean via the ship, “Supply.” He got word of a massive camel farm in Pisa, Italy where 250 camels did the amount of work equal to 1000 horses. This was too good to be true. When he arrived there, the farmer told him that camels have been used in Italy for 200 years. The camels were according to Porter ‘mistreated,’ and ‘sickly.’ They were bred from a strong Egyptian herd but this was too good to be true.

Porter and Wayne met up in Spezzia, Italy. The next step was simple, adopt a camel, raise it together, and learn how build this new unit. They bought 2 camels from Mohammed Bey in Tunis and stayed in Tunis to raise the camels. They heard that Persia has good, well-bred beasts. Next stop Persia but there was a problem. A war broke out and a colossal snow storm hit during the trip. Luckily, Constantinople was nearby and they could buy some there. There were no worthy camels for military use. Porter and Wayne got word that Egypt had good camels for the unit.

They got down to Egypt and…there were camels, great camels at that. Porter and Wayne bought 33 for about $250 a piece. 8 camel handlers came along with them. Only 2 of them were actual camel handlers. The herd was mostly Dromedaries with a few Bactrian (2 humps) and a Tulu (hybrid- Arabian and Bactrian). The shipment was dropped off in Indianola, Texas in Kerr County. The herd was taken to Army posts around Texas in Houston, El Paso, and Bowie. A second shipment of 4 dozen was purchased in 1856.

The soldiers didn’t like them. They were stubborn, ugly, and spit at them a lot. The other animals were initially weary but warmed up to them very quickly. Wayne successfully used them as burden-bearing beasts. This was followed up by doing several tests including mountain trails, mud, and traversing rivers. They passed but they were not used to water had difficulty with slippery slopes and rivers.

The locals took to them too quickly. A local poet wrote a wonderful poem praising the camels for the Indianola Bulletin. The children went on a camel rides. People came from all over Texas just to see these camels.

Jefferson Davis was replaced as Secretary of War in 1857. James Buchanan won the recent election and placed John B. Floyd, formerly the 31^st governor of Virginia, as Secretary of War. Davis returned to the Quartermaster Department. Now, there’s a dilemma for the future of the project. Was Floyd as camel crazy as Davis?

Yes, he was. He authorized an expedition from Fort Defiance, New Mexico to California following the 35^th parallel. This was prompted by a petition signed by 60,000 for the construction for a permanent road to California. Floyd chose the California Militia’s Brig. Gen. Edward Fitzgerald Beale to survey the territory. This was the perfect opportunity for the experimental unit. Beale had to bring 25 camels to see how they handle the trip. This was the real test.

Beale did not want to use camels. He left them at Camp Verde while prepping. Floyd was determined and made him take them. Beale left on June 25, 1857. Initially, Beale didn’t know what to do with the camels but, by late July his stance was reversed. The camels are worth the money. He wrote to Floyd, saying, “I have subjected them to trials which no other animal could possibly have endured.” The expedition reached the Colorado River on October 19. The camels took to the water and crossed with no problem.

Sketch of the Beale Expedition

On the report back to Floyd, Beale said that it was a success and the camels are perfect for military use. He never mentioned that he left most of the camels in California for the soldiers there and that 3 died on the way there. Based on this success, Floyd went to Congress to order 1000 camels. It was denied. The United States Camel Corps Experiment was over.

The camels were sparingly used by the military afterwards. However, many businesses started to use camels for transporting goods out West. Even civilians got in on the action. In 1858, there was a local woman in Houston that ordered 2 cargoes of camels for her ranch. The person in charge of maintaining these herds and its handlers was Francis R. Lubbock, the 6^th Lt. Governor of Texas and later 9^th Governor of Texas.

The Civil War killed all the potential of using camels and overshadowed it. The camels were scattered throughout the west. No one knew or cared about what to do with them. The Confederates captured the Texas posts with camels during the American Civil War. The rest in California remained there for the few decades. The Confederates used the camels for transporting mail a few times and nothing else besides that. At the end of the war the animals were sold off to various people and businesses.

A weird side note, 3 of 5 people directly involved with the Camel Corps became major players in the Confederate States of America. Jefferson Davis was the President, John B. Floyd was a Brigadier General, and Major Henry C. Wayne was also a Brigadier General.

This was a successful experiment. Camels could have changed the outcome of American history but we’ll never know how much or to what extent. We could have had Billy the Kid strike fear in the heart of Old West banks on camelback or even better A Fistful of Dollars but the Man with No Name rides in on a camel. The possibilities are endless. It makes no sense that the experiment was cancelled but it’s a fascinating look at a part of history that should be more famous.

Resources

http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/12/27/the-short-life-of-the-camel-corps/?_r=0

https://armyhistory.org/the-u-s-armys-camel-corps-experiment/

http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/the-united-states-army-used-camels-until-after-the-civil-war-180948201/?no-ist

http://www.desertusa.com/mag05/sep/camel.html

http://www.qmmuseum.lee.army.mil/historyweek/26aug-1sep.htm

http://www.scvhistory.com/scvhistory/hijolly-ap.htm

http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Journals/PopSciM/74/Jefferson_Davis_Camel_Experiment*.html

http://uselessinformation.org/camel/index.html

http://burnpit.legion.org/2011/04/camels-arrive-texas-begin-us-army-experiment

http://mentalfloss.com/article/61993/how-civil-war-broke-camel-corps

https://books.google.com/books?id=j05vwNRXi-0C&pg=PA277&lpg=PA277&dq=camel+corps+jefferson+davis&source=bl&ots=HEltoYjz1z&sig=zpMkIMn5-6UOC5ANxHkH8ND2xOc&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CB0Q6AEwADgKahUKEwjBh-mx7qnHAhVG1IAKHc9rAVk#v=onepage&q=camel%20corps%20jefferson%20davis&f=false

http://www.legendsofamerica.com/we-ghostcamels.html

https://books.google.com/books?id=bhk7AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA143&lpg=PA143&dq=jefferson+davis+camel&source=bl&ots=Lkf-c-uBGG&sig=5O6srKAKEHV6K1EjpbmdJytC0CA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CB8Q6AEwATgKahUKEwj0nde88anHAhXLOj4KHebQD7w#v=onepage&q=jefferson%20davis%20camel&f=false

MARGARET I: Scandinavian Overlord and Overlooked Woman

Margrethe I (alternate spelling Margaret I)

When it comes to medieval monarchs, the typical names that always pop up are William the Conqueror, Eleanor of Aquitaine, Vlad the Impaler, Richard the Lionheart, Elizabeth 1, Alexander Nevsky, among others. A glaring omission is always Margaret I. For the rest of the article I’ll use this the proper Danish spelling of Margrethe.

In 1353, Helvig of Schleswig, wife of Danish king Waldemar 4^th Atterdag (pronounced Valdemar), gave birth to her 6^th and last child. Margrethe was born in the royal estate at Vordingborg, Denmark. Her father was of the House of Estridsen. This family had been in power in Denmark since 1047, starting with Thorgil Sprakling. Waldemar was called Atterdag. The exact meaning of Atterdag is lost. Margrethe’s mother was forced into the Esrum Abbey. Waldemar accused her of having an affair. Helvig was quickly replaced with a mistress, Tove.

Margrethe’s early life isn’t well-documented. On April 9, 1359, her father arranged a marriage between her and the Norwegian king (since 1355) and Swedish Prince Haakon 6^th. This was part of an alliance treaty. The tracks were now laid for Margrethe’s eventual rise to power. She and Haakon didn’t speak or communicate much leading up to their marriage. In 1362, Haakon was crowned king in Sweden. This wouldn’t last long. His reign was a mere 2 years.

Haakon and Margrethe married in Copenhagen in 1363. She still lived with her father for a few years after getting married. Only a year later, Haakon lost the Swedish throne to the Mecklenburg’s Albert 2^nd. Albert was Margrethe’s cousin through her paternal aunt, Euphemia. The Mecklenburgs would remain a constant thorn in Margrethe’s side for the coming decades.

Young Haakon 6th with his mother Blanche of Namur

December 1371, Margrethe had a son, Olaf. He was their only child. Waldemar Atterdag died 4 years later from a mismanaged case of gout. Some sources say that Waldemar wanted Olaf to be his heir but others say otherwise. The two candidates were Olaf from the Estridsens and Albrekt from the Mecklenburgs. Even Pope Gregory XI supported Albrekt. The Danehof, Danish royal court and executive branch, voted for Olaf to replace his grandfather. He was chosen because he was directly in line for the Norwegian crown as well. Since Olaf was a toddler, Margrethe was regent until he was of age to be king. Women weren’t given this much power but given the political security with Norway, they allowed her to rule in his place. Haakon was too busy for the position. Olaf was crowned Olaf II of Denmark May 23, 1376. His official title was “Olaf, King of Denmark, Sclavonia, and the Goths.”

Margrethe managed the country well and expanded royal power. She built a reputation as an autocrat and someone no one questioned. Things took a dark turn on May 1, 1380. Haakon died. The exact cause of death is not known. She didn’t remarry after his death. Olaf was crowned King Olaf IV of Norway. Norway had strict rules with ascending to the throne, women were not allowed to be the primary regent but since Olaf was still a child they allowed Margrethe to reign in his place. She successfully ran these two countries for the next few years. There were some hiccups during this time. The Hanseatic League, a powerful association of merchants with political power, had taken Danish land in 1384. They never wanted Olaf to be Danish king and had been working with the Mecklenburgs to dispose Margrethe. In 1386, she retook all the land she gave up to Albrekt and threw him out of Denmark.

In 1385, Olaf ascended to the Norwegian and Danish thrones but she was the power. Olaf died suddenly on August 3, 1387.

Exactly one week after this, she was made the “Kingdom’s Guardian,” by the Danish Danehof. Her official title was, “Lady and the Householder.” She had all the powers of a queen except the title. Norway followed suit a year later and let her keep ruling. Her Norwegian title was, “Mighty Mistress and Master of the House.” She had the powers of a queen but not the title. In order to make sure she had a power base, she adopted her nephew Erik of Pomerania. He was heir to the Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian thrones. His birth name was Bugislav, she changed it to the more common name of Erik.

The Swedish nobility was divided at this point. Half of them supported Margrethe and the other half supported King Albrekt. They chose Margrethe to rule Sweden. Albrekt rebelled with his own army and German allies in 1389. Margrethe fought back with a combination of Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish forces. After a few months her military had captured Albrekt and crushed the rebellion. She was now officially Queen of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.

After 6 years of being a captive Albrekt was freed according to the Compact of Lindholm. The Compact stated, he had to pay Denmark 60,000 silver marks within 3 years. If not, she gets Stockholm. Albrekt failed to pay in time so Margrethe got Stockholm in 1398.

King Albrekt of Sweden’s tomb with his wife Agnes of Brunswick-Luneberg

She only had power as long as Erik was still underage to be king of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. In order to solidify her position, she planned on unifying her kingdoms she ruled when Erik was crowned in the all 3 nations. He became Erik VII of Denmark and Erik VIII of Sweden in 1396. A year later he became Erik III of Norway. On Trinity Sunday, June 17, 1397 a congress of representatives from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden agreed to unify as the Kalmar Union. They met at the Kalmar Castle in Sweden. The actual Treaty of Kalmar was never completely ratified and was only a single draft and then sealed away. He was not the king of Kalmar Union yet.

One of Erik’s Coronations

Under the Kalmar Union, the 3 countries were in a defense alliance. It functioned similar to NATO. Each nation was basically independent but still identified as a unified political body. They still had their laws, culture, customs, militaries, and the like. Technically, it began in 1389 in the fight against Albrekt. The main purposes for the Kalmar Union was to maintain peace in Scandinavia and centralized her power.

Erik took over the Kalmar Union in 1401. Margrethe was still the real leader that managed the Union. Erik was more or less a puppet king.

During her reign, she renovated the Danish economy by replacing copper coins with silver coins. This boosted the economy and Denmark as a whole. The Catholic Church became a strong presence in Scandinavia. She built many churches and donated to the Catholic Church. Margrethe made it a point to stay out of international business as a whole. Margrethe refused alliances with other nations. Margrethe is the only queen to reign in Norway, first of only 3 queens to reign in Sweden, and first of only 2 queens to reign in Denmark. She left her mark on Scandinavia and Europe’s history as one of the most powerful women and monarchs.

The Danish Flag was used as the Kalmar Union flag.

Her several royal titles include: “Margrethe, by the Grace of God, Waldemar Daneking’s Daughter,” “Denmark’s Rightful Heir,” “Mighty Mistress and Master of the House,” and while married to Haakon VI “Margaret, Queen of Norway.” She only had the title of queen when she was married to Haakon and had no influence. Pope Boniface IX called her, “Queen of Denmark,” and, “Queen of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.”

Her private life is largely unknown. She was both a powerful public figure and a ferocious force behind the scenes. Margrethe’s legacy and achievements are largely overlooked. She deserves to be remembered as one of Europe’s most influential and powerful leaders.

Margrethe I died suddenly from unknown causes onboard her own ship in Fleusborg harbor October 28, 1412.

References:

http://danmarkshistorien.dk/en/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/kalmarunionen-1397-1523/

http://www.tacitus.nu/historical-atlas/scandinavia/union.htm

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Margaret_I_of_Denmark

http://womenshistory.about.com/od/medrenqueens/a/Margaret-Of-Denmark.htm

http://departments.kings.edu/womens_history/margaretden.html

https://books.google.com/books?id=f_jLbHTM_zgC&pg=PA408&lpg=PA408&dq=estrid+dynasty&source=bl&ots=1ibkTAQzeC&sig=ivJhtlh3ZX0kf8_r227sfK0m3dU&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dUFiVan8IMWngwTP_oG4Dg&sqi=2&ved=0CFEQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=estrid%20dynasty&f=false

http://history-world.org/Union%20Of%20Denmark,%20Sweden,%20And%20Norway.htm

https://nbl.snl.no/Margrete_Valdemarsdatter

http://www.sverigeturism.se/smorgasbord/smorgasbord/society/history/kalmar-union.html

http://www.countriesquest.com/europe/denmark/history/the_kalmar_union_and_the_reformation.htm

http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Norway_until_the_Kalmar_Union,_1397

http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/MedScan.html

http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsEurope/ScandinaviaNorway.htm

http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/europe/kalmar-union.htm

http://www.nrk.no/kultur/margrete-valdemarsdatter-1.896608

https://snl.no/Margrete_Valdemarsdatter%2Fdronning

http://www.nndb.com/people/080/000095792/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qyv1ixhbfXY

https://tidsskrift.dk/index.php/historiejyskesamling/article/view/15612/29911

http://www.spokeo.com/Helvig+Of+Schleswig+1

https://bora.uib.no/bitstream/handle/1956/6301/Dr.thesis_Frode%20Hervik.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

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http://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/danehof/

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http://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/haakon-6-1340-1380/?no_cache=1&cHash=c265a1e4209c3c88e65daaf0c9e074e0

https://books.google.com/books?id=52nTAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=margaret+i+of+denmark&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCAQuwUwAGoVChMI3qmswMSdxwIVxHA-Ch03pgDA#v=onepage&q=margaret%20i%20of%20denmark&f=false

http://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/margrethe-1s-testamentariske-gaver-1411/?no_cache=1&cHash=9bfa97da56b54a13fe8c511ebe1c9e17

http://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/erik-af-pommerns-kroningsdokument-13-juli-1397/?no_cache=1&cHash=1e3c89cd9177c405a1d36dd801c33f98

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http://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/margrethes-valg-til-fuldmaegtig-frue-10-august-1387/?no_cache=1&cHash=9b0b64b683dd5de9f7ab53b1d649bac7

http://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/kalmarunionen-1397-1523/?no_cache=1&cHash=f1315347cd29a0630b964e0ee0b4d6aa

https://snl.no/Kalmarunionen

https://snl.no/Hansaforbundet

http://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/margrethe-1-1353-1412/?no_cache=1&cHash=36c56c0d69529022fcc56392d39d6542