HASEKURA TSUNENAGA: The Pope’s Favorite Samurai

The Samurai, legendary warriors that actually did a lot more than fight with katanas. They were more or less government employees that were highly trained in cultural customs as well as warfare. One such job was diplomat.

Statue of Tsunenaga

By the 1500s, The Japanese had some interaction with Europeans but it was minimal, some trade and whatnot. Hasekura Tsunenaga was the first official ambassador to Europe. Tsunenaga embarked on a journey to Europe and North America in 1613.

Tsunenaga was born in 1571. Aside from that not much is actually known about his life. He came from a family of samurai. Like his father, Hasekura Tsunenari, he was trained as a samurai. Eventually, Tsunenaga became a mid-level samurai and retainer under Date Masamune in the Sendai domain. Things both personally and professionally shook up Tsunenaga’s life in 1612.

His father, Tsunenari was indicted for corruption and had his fief seized by Masamune. Not only that but Tsunenaga was supposed to be executed. However, this didn’t happen. Masamune had a plan. He wanted to let Christian missionaries in his domain. The Emperor and other Shoguns were decidedly against having any Western influence. They were trying to outlaw Christians from entering Japan. So, Masamune went rogue and defied them. He wanted to send an ambassador to meet with King Felipe III of Spain and Pope Paul V to organize a massive influx of Christian missionaries to convert Sendai (and possibly Japan), and to establish trade with Europe via the Spanish.

Tsunenaga was seen as a great pick for this mission. He was a veteran of the Korean invasion in 1597 under Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a

Tsunenaga Post Baptism

nd had years of experience sailing. Also, he didn’t want to die. Regardless of the outcome, the Hasekura estate would be restored and Tsunenaga would live.

On September 15, 1613 Tsunenaga left aboard the San Juan Bautista or as the Japanese called it the Date Maru, a Spanish Galleon built in Japan. It took 800 shipwrights, 700 smiths, 3000 carpenters, and 45 days to complete. The crew was 180, a mix of Spanish, Portuguese, and mostly Japanese, in total.

First stop, New Spain aka Mexico. They arrived in 1614. Meanwhile in Japan, the shoguns and Emperor were cracking down on Jesuits. They’d been hanging around since 1549. The Japanese leaders had had enough and outlawed any Christian missionaries from entering Japan. Effectively, cutting off their trade relationships with the Portuguese and Dutch. The Jesuits present were forced to leave. This was the start of cutting ties with the West.

The Date Maru landed in Acapulco, New Spain. Shortly after they met with the local Spanish viceroy. It went well though there isn’t much information on what exactly was discussed. They stayed for a bit. The Date Maru left with a fleet of Spanish escorts but a tropical storm forced them to stay hunker down in Cuba until it passed.

On October 5, 1614, the fleet reached Sanlucar de Barra, Spain. Evidently, they loved Spain and stayed there for 8 months. The meeting with King Felipe III went swimmingly. To cement the deal to trade goods with Spain, Tsunenaga was baptized a Catholic by the Archbishop of Toledo. His godfather was the Duke of Lerna. Tsunenaga’s Christian name was Don Filippo Francisco Hasekura-Rokuemon. King Felipe and Tsunenaga bro-ed out for a while then he had to leave to meet the Pope. Before reaching Rome, they stopped in France and Italy shortly. Apparently, it wasn’t as fun Spain.

After taking in the Mediterranean coast, they finally met the pope. Just like with Felipe III, Pope Paul V loved him and agreed to send missionaries to Japan. The Pope loved him so much that Tsunenaga is made an honorary Roman and nobleman. Thus making him, the pope’s and the Vatican’s favorite samurai.

They returned to Spain ASAP. However, Felipe III had bad news. He found out that the emperor and shoguns outlawed Christian missionaries from entering Japan. The deal was off but they stayed in Spain for as long as they wanted. They hung out in Spain for a bit and eventually left.

The Date Maru left in July 1616. Once it landed in New Spain, a few samurai ran away. They didn’t stay quite as long before but still took their time to get back. Next stop, the Philippines for 2 more years. Then they finally return to Sendai with the news in 1620. So, this mission was a giant waste of time and money but Tsunenaga had a great 7-year vacation.

Tsunenaga died in 1622 from illness. His grave is unknown and 3 different graves are allegedly his.

Most of his life unknown except for this brief 7 years, where a local governor sent him on a mission to undermine the national government’s official policies. It failed completely but if you got a free ticket to Europe on “official” business wouldn’t you take your time too. This was almost completely forgotten by for 250 years, until the Japanese opened up their borders again to Westerners.

Sources

http://civitavecchia.co.uk/hasekura.html

http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2014/03/12/arts/hasekura-tsunenagas-portrait-has-a-tale-to-tell/#.Vqd_kiorLIU

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Hasekura_Tsunenaga

http://www.urasenke.or.jp/texte/world/e_mexico03/e_mexico03.html

http://www.idtg.org/archive/1164-hasekura-tsunenaga/

http://www.artsales.com/ARTistory/Xavier/Hasekura.html

http://www.city.sendai.jp/kyouiku/museum/syuuzou/hasekura/index.html

MONGOLIA UNDER BOGD KHAN: Two Revolutions for the Price of One

When it comes to the Mongolian history, most people stop at the death of Genghis Khan or if you’re a history nerd, the Golden Horde in Russia. However, the Mongolians have a deeply interesting and ignored history. This will cover a specified time in Mongolian history. In a short amount of time they went through two different revolutions, the Revolution of 1911 and Revolution of 1921, including a brief flirtation with a monarchy. This laid the path for what they would become in the 20^th century.

Before I start at 1911, I need to set a foundation. Mongolia was not independent pre-1911. It was a military protectorate under Imperial China for centuries. There were several races under Chinese control most prominently Mongols, Manchus, and Han. They more or less operated on its own since it was the furthest part of the empire. Mongolia was like the kid in the back of class that the teacher sometimes forgets is there. Mongolia was divided into two different protectorates, Outer Mongolia and Inner Mongolia. Outer is what we now know as Mongolia and Inner was right below it (Some is modern China and some is modern Mongolia). By the late 20^th century Imperial China was nearly at its end. The shadow of Russia was slowly but surely closing in.

Meanwhile in Europe Great Britain and Russia were in the midst of the Great Game. This was a battle of diplomatic dick size in Central Asia. Russia wanted to prove itself following their embarrassing defeat in the Crimean War. This included a series of treaties in the 1890s, one of which included recognizing Tibet as a part of China. The Russians had been moving into China via Outer Mongolia for a while by this point. They set up shop throughout the Mongolias. The Chinese didn’t like it but couldn’t do anything about it. Also numerous Chinese businesses had moved into Outer Mongolia. Now, this sounds good but it wasn’t. The Qing government reach barely touched Mongolia. It was a haven for businesses that didn’t have to follow the law. The Russians and Chinese were taking advantage of the local Mongol population. They used monasteries as trading depots. There were a lot of them given that 45% of the male population in Outer Mongolia were Buddhist monks. The Mongols didn’t have many natural resources aside from animal products, which weren’t worth a lot, and had no real foot in the door in the trade between China and Russia. This is only the beginning if Mongolia’s complicated relationship with Russia.

Mongolian Nobles with Russians

The Chinese saw this as a golden opportunity. The Mongols could only sell their goods for low prices. The Chinese sold their goods on credit. This went on for decades. By 1911, the Mongols had accumulated 15 million taels in debt to Chinese to traders. 1 tael is $653.31 in current American dollars. That means the total debt was $9,799,650,000. If divided between every household in Outer Mongolia, it’s 500 taels/$326,655 per home. This was only one of the problems that led to the Mongols revolting.

The Qing regime realized following their crushing defeat during the Boxer Rebellion that they have problems. It was too late stop the avalanche. A series of restrictions on its citizens were abolished. These included, allowing Mongols to speak to Chinese, allowing marriage between Chinese, Manchus, and Mongols, allowing Chinese to move their families in Mongolia (Outer and Inner), and Han (largest Chinese ethnic group) settlement in the Mongolias. Even though on the surface this appears good for Mongolia. It in fact made the situation worse. The racial tension between the Mongols, Han, and Manchus went from bad to worse. The Qing administration was so dedicated to this that they established the Department of Colonization in 1907. The purpose of it was to promote Han movement to the Mongolias and attempt to get the Russians and their allies out of Chinese territory. All the while, the Mongolians were still treated as second class citizens.

The Qing tried to force the Mongols to convert their land into villages and farms. This failed. The Mongolian land is much better for herding animals than growing crops. On top of this, the Qing tried again to build gold mines throughout the Mongolia. The Mongolians did not like this. It would ruin their land but no one cared and they tried it anyway.

Remember how the Qing administration wanted to remove all the Russians. This also didn’t go as planned. A Russian noble, Baron Von Grot, managed a Belarus-Russia company that attempted to build a gold mine in Outer Mongolia, in Tushiyetu Khan and Setsen Khan aimags (Mongolian province) to be specific. One year later in 1901, they ran out of money and abandoned the project. In 1906, Von Grot did the same thing again. He requested permission from the Qing this time. They said no but he did it anyways. He was backed by the Romanovs after all. The Chinese could only tax the gold mines and just let them do it regardless. In 1910, the Qing received 200,000 taels/$130,662,000 from these gold mines alone. That was only 10% of their total profits by that point. Again, no one cared about the Mongolians.

The groundwork for revolution was firmly planted in Mongolian soil. By this point, the Revolution of 1911 had ravaged through China and eventually reached Mongolia.

Decades before that though a baby boy was born in Tibet. The year was 1869. His father managed the finances of the Dali Lama. The boy’s name was Jivzundamba Agvaanluvsanchoijinyamdanzanvanchug. 5 years later, the family moved to Mongolia, where Jivzundamba spent his childhood. He also happened to be the 8^th reincarnation of Bogd Gegen or the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu (Mongolian for, “Mongolian Holy Precious Master”). This made him the Buddhist religious leader in Mongolia, Pope level prestige. He married Ekh Dagina in 1902. They had a son and adopted daughter. I’ll refer to the Mongolian Holy Precious Master as Bogd Khan from here on.

Queen Ekh Dagina with her daughter

Bogd Khan had the best education available. He was trained in many religious studies, and several languages. Apparently, his Mongolian was better than Tibetan. As word of revolution started to spread to Mongolia, it reached Bogd Khan. He started to publicly encourage the Mongolians to revolt. Mongolia wasn’t strong enough to break away from China so they need help. The closest nation that can help is Russia. You know one of the reasons they wanted to be revolt in the first place. Remember when I said their relationship with Russia is complicated.

By 1911, the Xinhai Revolution was raging in China. This led to Mongolia’s Revolution of 1911. The Empire was collapsing. This was the time. The top Khalka Khans (nobles) from the most powerful aimag; Tusheet Khan – Dashnyam, Zasagt Khan – Sonomravdan, Setsen Khan – Navaantseren, and Sain Khan – Namnansuren, along with Bogd Khan wrote and signed a letter seeking assistance from the Russians to separate from China. It would be impossible without them.

In the meantime when waiting for a response, there were several meetings throughout the year to figure out the semantics of becoming a separate nation. They did these under the cover of religious ceremonies for the Bogd Khan. By October 1911, they had formed the General Provisional Administrative Office for the Affairs of Khalka Khan or the GPAOAKK. The Russians replied, and…it…was…a…YES!

December 1, 1911, they sent a Declaration of Independence to the Manchu military governor.

December 29, 1911, Bogd Khan and Ekh Dagina are enthroned as the monarchs of Mongolia (This day is now their Independence Day aka Tusgaar Togtnoliin Udur). This wasn’t just a local issue for China, it was international news. The Frankfurter Zeitung (Frankfurt General Newspaper in English) on January 10, 1912 reported, “The Crisis in Mongolia has its origin in the failure of the last Chinese Emperors to conceal, driven by their political activities, their dissatisfaction with the Khutuktu, who is the religious leader of this nation. It was the Khutuktu who turned to the Russians. He just like the Dalai Lama of Tibet, led by the people who were discontented with Chinese sovereign rule…This second living Buddha, overconfident in himself, entertained unrealistic ideas. The Khutuktu is rather old and likes alcoholic drinks and other earthly pleasures that are unacceptable to his religion.”

A meeting leading up to their split from China

The Revolution of 1911 is a success.

The newly crowned king picked a cabinet of ministers. They were; Interior Minister – Da Lam Tserenchimed, Foreign Minister – Khanddorj, Finance Minister – Chagdarjav, Justice Minister – Namsrai. In July 1912, a Prime Minister was selected, Namnansuren. The initial goal was to eventually incorporate Inner Mongolia into their country. 38 out of 49 Mongolian banners (ethnic sub-group) were in support of independence. However, the Chinese were not gonna let these Mongols have their land.

Meanwhile in China, a republic was established. They wanted to get the band back together via the Republic of 5 Races. The Mongolians were not interested, they moved out last year. The Chinese tried to sweeten the pot several times and the Bogd Khan never bit. Later that year, on November 3, 1912, the Russian-Mongolian Agreement was signed. Russia was the first nation to formally recognize Mongolia as a fellow nation. The agreement also included a military alliance and military protection via the Russians.

Even though the Chinese said they were done with Mongolia. They did continuously threaten to send in troops but the threat of the Russians kept them away. This looks great. Mongolia is on its own and they have a buddy named Russia that will always be there to protect them but the Russians also recognized China’s rule over Mongolia. They also helped Mongolia a lot in the next few years.

On May 25, 1915, China finally recognized Mongolia as a nation.

The Mongolian military was a messy situation to put it lightly. Initially, it had 20,000 troops. The Bogd Khan didn’t want a military or have the money to support one for long. The Russians gave them 2,000,000 Rupees/$1,000,000 American Dollars (current) to build up a military. A Machine Gun company, 2 calvary regiments, and 4 gun battery of artillery were created because that’s what the Russians told them to do. 1,900 Russian soldiers and officers were sent as well to oversee the overhaul. They attempted to whip the army into shape. It didn’t work.

The Mongol soldiers thought the Russians were too cruel. Numerous soldiers deserted in response to the harsh training and treatment. The Russians tried again. They gave the Mongolian Army another 1,000,000 rupees along with a financial officer to see how they’d spend the money. After this failed the Russians backed out for a few reasons. By 1919, the army was a mere 2,000 troops. In 8 years it shrank by 90%.

The Russians backed out on the Mongolians because of something called the Bolshevik Revolution and more importantly their training wasn’t working. On top of that the Bogd Khan weren’t great rulers but they were liked by the people. The Chinese moved in and swiftly occupied Mongolia. In 1919, after 8 years Mongolia is a part of China again.

Ax Hero Himself

One soldier Sukhe Bator (“Ax Hero,” in Mongolian) decided to change this. He was a prominent and well-liked Mongolian soldier. He quickly moved through the ranks. He got together with other revolutionaries and established the Mongolian People’s Party. They fled to the Soviet Union for more training and support.

Sukhe Bator returned a few years later, in 1921, with Mongolian and Soviets soldiers. They fought back and swiftly fought their way through Mongolia. They reached Khiagt, Outer Mongolia on July 11, 1921. The Chinese gave up on Mongolia for the second and final time. This day is celebrated as their National Holiday. Khiaght became the new capital. The Revolution of 1921 is a success. They are a free nation again.

A new government was formed, the People’s Government of Mongolia. They are now a communist nation with a monarchical figurehead. The Bogd Khan had limited power but he still had influence. It was not fully communist yet. He was the last monarch to rule in Mongolia. The queen, Ekh Dagina, and national hero, Sukhe Bator, both died in 1923. Bogd Gegen died in 1924. They fully shifted to a communist state after his death.

Jivzundamba Agvaanluvsanchoijinyamdanzanvanchug aka Bogd Gegen ruled in one of Mongolia’s most interesting, turbulent, and defining eras, that is too often overlooked.

References

Act, The Movement In Mongolia After The 1911 Revolution Is Often Written Within The, Context Of The Mongolian Declaration Of Independence, But This Article Analyzes, and Various Reactions From Pro-Independence Forces And Constitutional Monarchy. The 1911 Revolution and “ Mongolia”: Independence, Constitutional Monarchy, or Republic (n.d.): n. pag. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

Ng. Chapter 18 The Mongolian National Revolution of 1911 and Bogdo Jebtsumdamba Khutuktu, the Last Monarch (n.d.): n. pag. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

“Warfare History Blog.” : Outer Mongolian Revolution: Tibetan-Buddhist Holy Warriors & the Asiatic Cavalry Division, 1919-1922. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

“Mongolia – Modern Mongolia, 1911-84.” Mongolia – Modern Mongolia, 1911-84. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

Kotkin, Stephen, and Bruce A. Elleman. Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Landlocked Cosmopolitan. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1999. Print.

THE WALKER BROTHERS: 60 Years Before Jackie Robinson There Were The Walkers

Moses Fleetwood Walker (nicknamed Fleet) and Welday Wilburforce Walker are two of the first black professional baseball players in American history. Some of you reading this might be thinking, “The Walkers weren’t the first, you’re wrong. It was Jackie.” Those of you thinking that, aren’t completely wrong. The first black baseball player to play in the major leagues is not as clear as you’d think. The Walkers may or may not have been the first (depending on your criteria) but they are usually considered to be the first. There were other black players in the majors at the time including George Stovey, William Edward White, Bud Fowler, and Sol White.

William Edward White predates the Walkers by a few years though. William Edward White is recorded to have played only one game. It was on June 21, 1879. It was an athletic battle between the Providence Grays and the Cleveland Blues. White was a first baseman for Providence. Earlier that year, he was part of the Brown University championship baseball team.

White was born a slave in Georgia. His father was white and mother was mixed, black and white. She was a house slave and his father was her master. Will probably passed as white while in the North. On various censuses he was listed as black or white pending on the year and location. He was the first black player to a play in a major league game. Will does not appear to have played any more games besides this one. After this not much is known about him. Technically, he was first but only played one game Again, it depends on your criteria.

With that out of the way, the Walkers. Moses Fleetwood Walker was born October 7, 1856 in Mount Pleasant, Ohio. He was the 3^rd out of 6 or 7 children. Welday (Nicknamed Weldy) Wilburforce Walker was born July 27, 1860 in Steunbenville, Ohio. He was the 5^th or 6^th of 6 or 7 children. Not much is known about the family until 1870. Their father, Moses W. Walker was a doctor turned minister. He and Caroline O’Hara Walker had settled in Ohio as fugitive slaves along the Underground Railroad while on the way to Canada. They were both mixed race.

By the 1870s Baseball was sweeping the nation. Ohio was chock-full of Diamonds, bats and leather mitts. During this time the Walker children attended integrated schools. In 1877, their father became the pastor at Second Methodist Episcopal Church. Fleet and Weldy both graduated high school during these years.

At this point for the sake of clarity I’ll discuss the lives of Fleet and Weldy separately.

Weldy

He started attending Oberlin College in 1881, following his older brother Fleet. The sports department had no rules against blacks playing with whites. It was student ran as opposed to having the NCAA in place. Oberlin had integrated by this point. He played on the Oberlin Yeomans baseball team with Fleet for a season. After a momentous game against the University of Michigan in 1881. Fleet was recruited by U of Michigan and transferred there. Again, Weldy followed suit a few years later, by transferring to the Homeopathic Medical School at University of Michigan.

Just like Oberlin, seemingly no one cared they were black. Apparently the student body was surprised to learn their star players were black but that was the worst thing to him while there.  Weldy played together for a season there. Fleet left for the minor leagues but Weldy decided to stay. He continued his college career until spring 1884. He left school to play in the Majors with Fleet.

Weldy was a professional leftfielder for the Toledo Blue Stockings that summer. He made his major league debut July 15 versus the Philadelphia Athletics. He only played 3 or 4 more games that summer. His last major league game was August 6, 1884 against the Indianapolis Hoosiers. Both he and Fleet were kicked off the team at the end of the season, they never played in a game together with Toledo. Weldy did not follow brother again.

This marks the turning point for Weldy. He and a friend started a restaurant, the Delmonico Dining Rooms, in Mingo, Ohio. Much like his Major League baseball career it folded shortly after starting. After he sold the Dining Rooms, the Walker brothers managed the LaGrande Opera House in Cleveland, Ohio. This kept him afloat so he went back to baseball, it was the minors this time.

He played 3^rd baseman for the Excelsior Club in Cleveland briefly in 1886. This was followed by a brief stent in 1887 with the Ohio State League’s Akron Acorns. Later that year, moved to the Pittsburgh Keystones in the League of Colored Base Ball Players. That league folded after 2 weeks. He tried unsuccessfully again this and managed /played for the Keystone Base Ball Club of East Liverpool (still in Ohio, not that Liverpool) in 1888. By this point it was segregation was becoming more widespread in baseball. Weldy wasn’t having it.

He wrote an impassioned letter on racism within baseball to the Ohio State League but it led to nothing. His activist spirit never died and only grew as he got older. In 1886, he and a black friend walked into a ‘white’ roller rink to integrate it. They were refused service and sued. Weldy won that case.

Aside from baseball and owning several businesses throughout his life, he was very politically active. His primary focus was black issues. The color barrier went up officially in baseball after he and Fleet left sports. He was a strong supporter of the Back-to-Africa movement and worked as an agent for Liberian emigration. He strongly believed in racial separation and was also on the Executive Committee of the Negro Protective Party in Ohio.

He continued being active in the push for integration and black rights. Weldy made a living as a successful business owner by this point. In 1897, established a fish and oyster store. Shortly after this he started managing the Union Hotel until he died. Thomas, his nephew, helped him the entire time. During the Roaring 20’s he was a moderately successful bootlegger but was eventually caught and indicted.

On November 23, 1937 at 78, Weldy passed from influenza. He never married.

Moses aka ‘Fleet’

In 1877, a 20-year old Fleet started Preparatory Program at Oberlin College. A year later, he officially enrolled in the ‘classical and scientific course in the Department of Philosophy and Arts.’ His grades started great but once he joined the baseball team, they fell off. Initially, the only play was inter-play but they expanded to other schools shortly after. Fleet were the stars. His final game with Oberlin was against Michigan in 1881. The Oberlin Yeomans lost 9-2. U of Michigan offered him a spot on the team. Moses became the first Black athlete in University of Michigan’s history.

During the summer of 1881, he played semi-professional baseball for the White Sewing Machine Company of Cleveland. This led to the first of many instances that would follow Fleet during his athletic career. The day was August 21. The game was on the road in Louisville, KY. When Fleet took the diamond, things turned ugly. The audience wasn’t happy and the home team was furious. 2 of the Kentucky players, Fritz Pfeffer and Johnnie Reccius, refused to play with a black person on the field. Fleet played until the 2^nd inning and returned to the bullpen.

Baseball wasn’t the only reason, Fleet left Oberlin. While he was there, he met two women, Arabella Taylor and Ednah Mason. He was romantically involved with Arabella. She was pregnant around the time of the Michigan game. The Oberlin community wasn’t a great place for an unmarried pregnant woman. They packed up and moved to Michigan. In 1882, she had a daughter named Cleolinda. They had 2 more children, Thomas, in 1884, and George, in 1886.

Fleet played for the Wolverines for 2 years. In 1883, he left school to play in the minor league. He played catcher for the Toledo Blue Stockings. During his first year with the Blue Stockings he had a run in with Cap Anson. They met on the diamond on July 1883. Anson was a major player on and off the field. Everyone respected him and followed his lead. He was also a racist. He refused to play with Fleet on the field. Because of Anson he sat out for the game. A handful of years later, Anson (A Hall of Fame player) spearheaded the establishment of the color barrier in baseball. At this point, it was the Air Bud rule of, “There’s nothing in the rule book that says we can’t.” It just wasn’t a common practice at the time. There were several incidents like this during the season and his career.

A year later in 1884, they became a major league team. On May 1, 1884 against the Louisville Eclipse he played his first Major League game. Injury cut Fleet’s season shorter than expected. He did play 42 games and was cut from the team September 23, 1884. He became a Postman in the meantime.

Hope was not lost though, Fleet signed with the Western League’s Cleveland Team. He played all 18 games until that league folded. To support himself, he and Weldy ran the LaGrande Opera House together.

Over the next few years, he played on Newark Bears with George Stovey, and the Syracuse Stars. He was the last black player in the Minor Leagues or Major League in 1889. While with Newark, they played an exhibition game against Cap Anson…again. Stovey and Fleet sat the game out. His final day of his baseball career was August 23, 1889.

He held a variety of jobs after this. They include Postman (again), business owner, railroad clerk, author, and inventor. The family remained in Syracuse for a while. The 1890s were a rough time for Fleet. In 1891, Fleet was drinking at a bar when a group of white men were picked him as a target. They insulted him and things turned ugly. A brawl ended up breaking out. Fleet drew his knife and ended up stabbing one of the white men that caused the brawl. He died. In court, Fleet was surprisingly acquitted of murder by all-white jury.

The family stayed in Syracuse. Arabella died from cancer in 1895. A few years later married Ednah Mason, another Oberlin Alum. Both of his parents died by the end of decade. The finale to the 1890s was Fleet getting a felony charge for stealing mail. He spent a year in federal prison for a felony. After his release the family moved back to Steubenville.

He joined his brother in the fight for equality. They ran a newspaper that specialized in black issues, The Equator. He strongly backed the Back-To-Africa movement and racial separation. He helped run the Union Hotel too. Aside from politics, he ran another opera house. This one was in Cadiy, Ohio. In 1908, published a book titled, “Our Home Colony: A Treatise on the Past, Present, and Future of the Negro Race in America.” This was his dissatisfaction with the progress that was supposed to have happened by then. Fleet had 4 patents as well. 3 of them were improvements on film projectors and the other one was an improved explosive artillery shell.

He sold the Cadiy Opera House in 1920. Ednah died that year as well. He died from pneumonia May 11, 1924. His grave was left unmarked until 1991.

The Walker Brothers weren’t perfect. They played professional baseball but it wasn’t the right time. They weren’t just athletes. They were well spoken, educated, passionate, and strong people. The primary reason they’re overlooked is Jackie Robinson. He wasn’t the first but his story fits the mold of sports hero in a better, more complete way. Another reason is the Walkers’ politics. They strongly supported racial separation. The Civil Rights movement at that time is broken into 2 camps, Integration and Separation. The Integration side looks better in retrospect than the Separation side. This side may not resonate with people now as much as it does then. The Walkers’ Baseball is dead and mostly overlooked or ignored. Jackie’s Baseball is still very much alive. It’s a crime the Walker Brothers’ accomplishments and legacy are largely forgotten.

References:

http://www.baseball-reference.com/players/w/walkefl01.shtml

http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/history/mlb_negro_leagues_profile.jsp?player=walker_fleetwood

http://web.archive.org/web/20001023031241/http://www.pub.umich.edu/daily/1999/apr/04-20-99/sports/sports9.html

http://sabr.org/bioproj/person/9fc5f867

http://www.blackpast.org/aah/walker-moses-fleetwood-1857-1924

http://www.miamisci.org/youth/unity/Unity1/Kareem/pages/FleetWood.html

http://coe.k-state.edu/annex/nlbemuseum/history/players/walker.html

http://sabr.org/bioproj/person/08893f9f

http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1998-04-15/sports/9804150305_1_major-league-baseball-fleetwood-major-league-status

http://sabr.org/gamesproj/game/june-21-1879-cameo-william-edward-white

http://blackathlete.net/2008/06/cap-anson-and-the-color-line/

http://www.baseball-reference.com/players/w/walkewe01.shtml

http://articles.philly.com/2007-04-12/sports/24993709_1_black-freemen-black-teams-andrew-rube-foster

http://www.baseball-reference.com/minors/player.cgi?id=walker001wel

http://sabr.org/bioproj/person/8ff10f5c

http://sabr.org/bioproj/person/2f9d1227

EMU WAR: Birds of a Feather Stick Together

What do you get when you combine the Great Depression, the Australian Wheat Board, the Lewis Automatic Machine Gun, Emus, and World War I? The Great Emu War of 1932, that’s what.

Despite the name Emus weren’t the initial cause. This chain of events starts during World War I because of wheat. With thousands of soldiers returning to Australia, the Australian Wheat Board (established in 1915, under the Labor Party’s Billy Hughes administration) figured this was a golden opportunity to get a mass of new farmers to Western Australia. Farming in this area is known for being difficult. It would boost the national economy and give veterans jobs. The primary crops grown in this region are wheat along with other cereal grains. In order to get the soldiers interested in growing wheat, the Agriculture Department told them that they would receive subsidies for these crops. It worked. Thousands took up this opportunity.

Naturally, things were supposed to go great from here but they didn’t. The Agriculture Department never fulfilled their promise of subsidies. On top off that, the price of wheat was on the downfall and kept falling. The Great Depression hit in 1929, this only sunk the situation further. In the fall of 1932 around September. Roughly 20,000 Emus migrated to this newly transformed farmland utopia. It had plenty of water and food. The food that these flightless fowl loved so much was wheat. Also there was a drought ravaging Australia at the same time. The winter rains were one of the key sources for irrigation. The Emu only made things worse.

Prior to this however, the ex-soldier farmers fought back. A byproduct of the Emus coming through was also allowing rabbits and other pests to eat the crops along with them. The farmers killed as many Emu as possible on their own but this didn’t work given 20,000 more Emus would come through a few years later.

Emu went from a protected species to “vermin.” The only logical conclusion to this problem was the Lewis Automatic Machine Gun. Step 1 was simple, kill Emu and thus stop them from consuming the wheat fields. This was the solution the farmers proposed. The farmers didn’t go to the Minister of Agriculture, who was at the time Joseph Lyons (he was also the current Prime Minister). Charles Hawker, the previous Minister of Agriculture had retired in protest due to getting lower pay on September 23. The farmers didn’t trust the Agriculture Department so they contacted the Minister of Defence, George Pearce. He agreed to it but with two conditions. They were; only trained soldiers can operate the guns, and a cameraman from Movietone will film the campaign.

The Lewis Machine Gun was chosen because the veteran farmers saw how powerful it was in WW1. This was their only hope. The Royal Australian Artillery sent 7^th Heavy Battery commander Major G.P.W. Meredith to manage the campaign.

So far only humans have been discussed, here’s a little information about Emus. They range between 5 and 6.5 feet tall when fully grown. Emus travel in large groups across the harsh Australian outback. They migrate to the North for the summer and South for the winter. They can jump up to 7 feet. In a sprint their stride can go up to 9 feet. Plus they have excellent eyesight. Intelligent and savvy, they swiftly adapt to their environments and challenges presented their way. These birds aren’t dumb dumbs.

On October 18, 1932, Maj. Meredith brought 2 Lewis Machine Guns, 10,000 bullets, 2 soldiers to operate the weaponry, and a Movietone cameraman as per the agreement. They hoped to encounter a mob of Emu soon but it rained and the Emu scattered before Meredith’s men could engage. The next few days followed a repetitive pattern. They see a bunch of Emu, get closer to Emu, shoot at the Emu, and the Emu run away. Meredith underestimated how fast and smart these birds were. After a few skirmishes, the Emus figured out the range of the guns. So they if saw Meredith and his men they knew how far to run to and be safe. So Meredith came up with a brilliant idea, catch up to them with jeeps and shoot them from there. This didn’t work. The gunners couldn’t stabilize the machine gun enough to get a clear shot when speeding through the outback. No Emus were killed using this tactic. You can only imagine how frustrated Meredith had to be by this point. The Emus were winning. Well, they kept eating delicious healthy wheat.

The humans figured that if they wait at a watering hole a pack of Emus would eventually stop by. A pack of 100 or so Emus did stop by a nearby watering hole where the soldiers were waiting. They assumed that one machine gun would be enough. After 12 bullets it jammed and the Emus escaped. They fixed the jam but it was too late. They continued ambushes but it wasn’t enough. Everything they tried didn’t work. Every place the Emu were ambushed, they never returned. It was an endless game of catch-up. Remember the thing that caused this whole thing was wheat.

The Parliament recalled the effort on November 10, 1932 because it was a waste of time, financial sinkhole, and embarrassing. They had used 2,500 of the allotted 10,000 bullets. A few days later though it was resumed. It was still a failure. They killed more Emu but not enough to stop them going through wheat field. On December 10, 1932 it was recalled for good. Meredith had spent 9,860 bullets out of 10,000. No humans were killed. Some Emu were killed but the numbers aren’t definite. Meredith claimed over 2,000 birds were killed but this is most likely bullshit. It was never confirmed. It’s speculated to be in the hundreds not thousands.

The Australian Royal Army lost the “war.” It was barely a war. Meredith himself said it would be good target practice. Which it was but at the cost of federal money and even more irritated farmers that had to let their livelihood die out. The Emu continued their rampage on wheat. The farmers requested military action in 1934, 1943, and 1948. They were declined each time.

The primary reason it isn’t famous, has to be it’s embarrassing. It’s perfectly understandable. This was a perfect storm of overconfidence, poor planning, and bad luck. On paper it was supposed to be a breeze but these feathered flightless fowls outlasted and outsmarted the Australian military and farmers in Western Australia. At its core this sounds like a B-movie you’d see on MST3K but it isn’t.The craziest thing about this was that the Australian government or anyone at all thought this was a good idea. The only good that can be gleamed from this is that it shows only quickly a grassroots, local issue can get federal attention. Humans lost a war to Emu, this really happened.

References

http://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/emu

http://www.soilquality.org.au/au/wa

http://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Bills_Legislation/bd/BD9798/98bd220

http://www.todayifoundout.com/index.php/2014/01/great-emu-war-1932/

http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/running-ponies/2014/08/04/the-great-emu-war-in-which-some-large-flightless-birds-unwittingly-foiled-the-australian-army/

https://medium.com/war-is-boring/australia-once-lost-a-war-to-the-mighty-emu-fd0f07203ca4

http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/18516559

http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/4504009

http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/4509731

http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/2318780

http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/2315839

http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/4507996

http://trove.nla.gov.au/ndp/del/article/2317086

http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/hawker-charles-allan-6603

http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/lyons-joseph-aloysius-joe-7278