It’s no secret that I love African history (I have over 30 books specifically on it). I’ve already covered 2 African warrior queens, Amina and Ana Nzinga (you can find them in the Rhymes with Nerdy archives). This time, I’ll highlight a lesser known kingdom from central Africa…

The Kuba Kingdom

Starting sometime in the 16^th century several different peoples from just below of the Sahara, migrated south. They ultimately settled at the bottom edge of the Great Equatorial Forest and the start of the savanna in between the Kasia river – to the east, Sankuru – to the north, and Lulua – to the south, in modern day the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This large group consisted of 18 or 19 different ethnic peoples including – The Ngeende, Kel, Pyaang, Bulang, Bieng, Ilebo, Idiing, Kaam, Ngoombe Kayuweng, Shoowa, Bokila, Maluk, Bushong, Ngongo, and others. Upon their arrival, they came across the Twa. Another people, who were already settled there. Things were civil and the Twa assimilated into the already dense cultural melting pot.

The name, Kuba, originally came from a neighboring kingdom, the Luba. The Kuba referred to themselves as the Bakuba, which translates to, “People of the Throwing Knife.” They spoke Bakuba, a branch of the massive Bantu language tree, consisting of over 200 languages. The other major powers around them were the Kongo and Pende kingdoms, both of whom would prove to be very influential in the formation of the eventual Kuba kingdom.

Initially, they were just a loose confederation of separate villages that shared the same culture. There was no centralized government to speak of. They didn’t become a formally organized kingdom until roughly 1625. Shyaam a-Mbul a Ngoong-Shyaam, turned this cultural composite into a kingdom. It isn’t known where exactly he was from, but he was orphaned early on. A local Kuba queen adopted and raised him as a Bakuba. He left as an adult. Shyaam traveled to the nearby Kongo and Pende kingdoms, studying their cultures and political structures. Upon returning home, he revamped his homeland.

Some of the renovations he brought were: better iron forging techniques, new crops (cassava, maize, tobacco, beans), multi-branch centralized government, professional military and police, annual census, a complex economy, new tax policies, executive councils, trial by jury, merit-based ranking in government jobs, and bureaucracy. All of this was established without a written constitution.

A mesmerizing Kuba design.

The new kingdom was divided into 9 provinces – Kel, Bushong, Ngongo, Coofa, Pyang, Kete, Shoowa, Ngende, and Nsheng. These were in turn divided into smaller counties. The king, Nyim, was always ethnically Bushong and the capital was where the current king had grown up. Each ethnic group was in turn represented in the aristocratic courts. The queen mother was an essential role in the court. She represented the women on a federal level. The line of inheritance was through your mother NOT your father. That included who would be the next king.

The staple of the civilization was weaving, specifically raffia weaving. Raffia was essential for them to survive. Everything was woven from raffia, including the money. That was primarily because of the lack of local metals in the region. The Kuba designs are the most identifiable aspect of the their civilization. Their designs grew more and more complex as time went on. The Kuba design is perfectly symmetrical and asymmetrical at the same time in a beautiful, mesmerizing way. Once you see it, you can always identity it as Kuba in origin. The size and detail of the design on your house was an indicator of your rank in society. These designs were key in the development of Cubism. Picasso was a huge fan and collector of African and specifically Kuba art.

Wood craving and mask making were firmly in second place to weaving. They were equally as intricate and distinctive as the cloth designs. Art in general was highly appreciated and valued. The direction of art was heavily influenced by the Nyim. The most famous case of this was under Nyim Misha mi-Shyaang a-Mbul. He commissioned a new type of sculpture, the ndop. This was a large wooden sculpture of the Nyim. These were made to keep track of the past kings and honor the king. An ibol, personal symbol revealed at a Nyim’s coronation, was always at the forefront. Shyaam the Great’s ndop, prominently featured a mankala board. This represented his cunning, intelligence, and foresight, since mankala requires all 3 qualities. As the kingdom grew stronger, the uniquity of the art grew at a faster pace than rest of society.

Religion was a relatively lesser aspect of society. The creator god, Mfcoom/Bumba the Sky Father, created all and more or less left after that. The main deity worshiped was Woot. He was the first man created by Mfcoom. There were other gods but like Mfcoom, they weren’t that formally worshiped either. The Kuba saw the efforts of humanity more important and relevant than that of the supernatural. Everyone was buried with the items necessary for the afterlife. There was no heaven or hell. If you were good, you became a ghost and reincarnated at some point in the future. If you weren’t, you were stuck in limbo forever. The Nyim was the spiritual leader and head of the sorcerers. In addition, they are the head Ngesh, nature spirit, that bridged the divine with the human. Dogs were seen as messengers of the gods and given special treatment above other animals.

Primarily the regular diet consisted of fish, given the 3 rivers surrounding them. They regulated the fish population with man-made fish farms, that the women would harvest twice a year along with fishing in the rivers. Vegetables made up the other majority. Surrounded by fertile farmland, there was plenty of irrigation from the 3 rivers. Meat was only eaten during the dry season. During the rainy season, both men and women had to maintain the vegetable crops. Farming was much less intensive, the rest of the year.

As with the rest of their contemporaries, they were eventually discovered and colonized. They were one of the last left untouched by Western Europe. In 1892, William Sheppard, an African American Presbyterian missionary, writing about the exploitation of Africans under Belgium’s King Leopold II (That is a story for another day). Sheppard opened the door for the Germans to later colonize the region in 1907. The art regressed and morphed into a more European style but never completely lost its Kuba identity.

Sources

http://www.randafricanart.com/kuba_Ngady_aMwaash.html

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/kuba/hd_kuba.htm

https://africa.uima.uiowa.edu/peoples/show/Kuba

http://econ.columbia.edu/files/econ/content/kuba_final.pdf

http://kwekudee-tripdownmemorylane.blogspot.com/2014/02/kuba-people-most-artistic-and-highly.html

http://kubaafricanart.weebly.com/background.html

http://cool.conservation-us.org/waac/wn/wn08/wn08-1/wn08-102.html

https://museum.gwu.edu/weaving-abstraction-kuba-textiles-and-woven-art-central-africa

http://www.zyama.com/kuba/

Every 4 years, the very best of the very best of the very best in the wide world of sports compete for the gold. Nearly every nation is represented in this titanic tournament. Last time I tackled the Olympics, I focused on the 100M Dash. I ‘m stretching my horizons into gymnastics with…

Olympic Special Vol. 2: Vera Caslavska and Agnes Keleti

VERA CASLAVSKA: 1960 – Rome, 1964 – Tokyo, 1968 – Mexico City

Vera in 1967.

Mid-way through World War II on May 3, 1942, Prague’s Caslavska family introduced a baby girl. They named her Vera. From an early age, it was clear that Vera was a natural athlete. Initially, she started in dance, followed by figure skating. At 15 however, she switched to gymnastics. Like with the previous 2 sports, she dominated. Part of this was her and part was her instructor, Eva Bosakova (1952 – Helsinki, 1956 – Melbourne, and 1960 – Rome). Bosakova was already a multiple medal holder in both the Olympics and World Championships.

After a year or so of training Vera competed alongside Bosakova in 1959 at the European Championship. She won her first (of many) gold medals in the balance beams but slipped up on the uneven bars leaving her in 8^th. The team won the silver medal. This success continued into the Olympics in Rome where she won the silver in the team category again. She continued to compete and exponentially became the top gymnast of her era. In the World and European Championships and the Olympics, she won numerous gold and silver medals. Things changed around the 1968 Olympics however.

January 5, 1968, Antonin Novotny was officially replaced by Alexander Dubcek as 1^st Secretary of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. Dubcek’s goal was to create, “Communism with a Human Face.” In turn, he introduced more Democratic leaning policies and expanding people’s freedoms like speech. The Soviets were not pleased so they invaded Czechoslovakia with 600,000 soldiers and help from other Warsaw Pact nations. Vera was in support of the new reforms and signed the protest manifesto, “Two Thousand Words,” by Ludvik Vaculik. All this happened a few months before the Mexico City Olympics that fall (seriously, the 1968 summer games were held in October that year).

Vera was in trouble so her fled to the mountains. Similarly to Rocky in Rocky IV, she trained using the natural world, but out of necessity not because of manliness. After 3 weeks, she got word that the Czech allowed her to participate in the Mexico City games again. It was during these games that she became the first and only Olympian to ever win a medal in every gymnastics event. In addition to this, she refused to observe the rising of the Czech and Soviet flags when she tied for the gold in the Floor Exercise with Larisa Petrik. Many took notice, including the Soviets.

Around this time, she married Josef Odlozil, a fellow Czech Olympian. Back home in Prague, things changed. The government was suspicious of Caslavska and barred her from federal jobs for her protests and politics.

She divorced Josef in 1987. 3 years later the Communists lost power and she finally publicly regarded as a hero of the people. Also wasn’t barred from federal jobs. They had several children. One of them, Martin, stabbed his father in a dance club in 1993. Josef died. Martin was sent to prison. Vera focused on keeping her family together after this tragic event. She still resides in Prague today and lives a private life.

AGNES KELTEI: 1948 – London, 1952 – Helsinki, 1956 – Melbourne

Hungry’s Agnes Keleti came from humble beginnings, she was born to a Jewish family on January 9, 1921. Like other future Olympians she was attracted to sports early on. A natural gymnast, she excelled at the VAC Jewish Sports Club quickly. Her father, Ferencs, wanted both his daughters involved in sports. He was a lifelong athlete. Her mother complimented their father’s push for athletics with academics. Thanks to her, Agnes was a great student, cellist, and singer.

At 16, she won her first national championship. By the end of her professional career, there were 9 more national championships. She was on her way to the Olympics but World War II broke out. Hunngry was left out of it for awhile until Germany invaded. Agnes managed to get papers under the guise of a Christian woman named Piroshka. She worked for a Nazi-sympathizing family as a maid for the rest of the war. Her father was taken to Auschwitz. Her mother and sister luckily escaped thanks to the Swedish diplomat, Raoul Wallenberg (he was responsible for saving thousands of Hungarian Jews). By the end of the war the only family left was her mother and sister.

Agnes doing a split at 91.

Reunited with her family, Agnes resumed where her career left off. She won more national titles over the next few years and nearly made it to the London Olympic. 2 days before they began, she injured herself but recovered in time to compete in European and World Championships. In the Helsinki games, she became the oldest female gymnast to win an Olympian medal at 31. She won 4 medals in total. That record was broken again at the Melbourne games with 6 more medals. At 35, she set the record (again) for oldest female gymnast to win an Olympic medal.

The Soviet Union invaded Hungry during the Melbourne games. Instead of return home, she and the other Hungarians remained down under. She received political asylum to reside in Israel, where she still lives. In 1959, she married Robert Biro, a fellow Hungarian Jew that escaped the Soviets. They have 2 sons, Rafael and Daniel. In Israel, she become a corner stone in the establishment of Israeli Gymnastics. She ended up teaching at Tel Aviv University for years.

Agnes is the second most accomplished Jewish Olympic athlete with 10 medals, right behind Mark Spitz’ 11.

Not only did these women set world records, they managed to thwart both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union from destroying them mentally and physically. They are extraordinary women that need to be remembered and celebrated.

Sources

http://www.ighof.com/honorees/1998_Vera_Caslavska.php

https://www.olympic.org/vera-caslavska

http://brooklynquarterly.org/personal-protest-at-the-olympics/

http://thebiography.us/en/caslavska-vera

http://www.drmirkin.com/histories-and-mysteries/vera-caslavska-marriage-of-two-great-olympic-athletes.html

http://www.radio.cz/en/section/curraffrs/czechoslovak-sports-legend-vera-caslavska-celebrates-60th-birthday

http://web.archive.org/web/20040508164234/http://www.intlgymnast.com/events/2004/europeans/champions/caslavska.html

http://articles.latimes.com/1990-04-05/sports/sp-900_1_prague-spring

http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/prague-spring-begins-in-czechoslovakia

http://www.dhr.history.vt.edu/modules/eu/mod05_1968/evidence_detail_13.html 2,000 Words

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dykBBhaoczg

http://www.lib.umich.edu/soviet-invasion-czechoslovakia/pg1.html

http://www.gymn.ca/gymnasticgreats/wag/keleti.htm

http://esra-magazine.com/blog/post/agnes-keleti

http://www.jewishpress.com/sections/jewess-press/impact-women-history/agnes-keleti-the-foundation-stone-of-gymnastics-in-israel/2012/07/22/

http://www.ighof.com/honorees/2002_Agnes_Keleti.php

http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/keleti-agnes

http://www.jewishsports.net/BioPages/AgnesKeleti(Klein).htm

HASEKURA TSUNENAGA: The Pope’s Favorite Samurai

The Samurai, legendary warriors that actually did a lot more than fight with katanas. They were more or less government employees that were highly trained in cultural customs as well as warfare. One such job was diplomat.

Statue of Tsunenaga

By the 1500s, The Japanese had some interaction with Europeans but it was minimal, some trade and whatnot. Hasekura Tsunenaga was the first official ambassador to Europe. Tsunenaga embarked on a journey to Europe and North America in 1613.

Tsunenaga was born in 1571. Aside from that not much is actually known about his life. He came from a family of samurai. Like his father, Hasekura Tsunenari, he was trained as a samurai. Eventually, Tsunenaga became a mid-level samurai and retainer under Date Masamune in the Sendai domain. Things both personally and professionally shook up Tsunenaga’s life in 1612.

His father, Tsunenari was indicted for corruption and had his fief seized by Masamune. Not only that but Tsunenaga was supposed to be executed. However, this didn’t happen. Masamune had a plan. He wanted to let Christian missionaries in his domain. The Emperor and other Shoguns were decidedly against having any Western influence. They were trying to outlaw Christians from entering Japan. So, Masamune went rogue and defied them. He wanted to send an ambassador to meet with King Felipe III of Spain and Pope Paul V to organize a massive influx of Christian missionaries to convert Sendai (and possibly Japan), and to establish trade with Europe via the Spanish.

Tsunenaga was seen as a great pick for this mission. He was a veteran of the Korean invasion in 1597 under Toyotomi Hideyoshi, a

Tsunenaga Post Baptism

nd had years of experience sailing. Also, he didn’t want to die. Regardless of the outcome, the Hasekura estate would be restored and Tsunenaga would live.

On September 15, 1613 Tsunenaga left aboard the San Juan Bautista or as the Japanese called it the Date Maru, a Spanish Galleon built in Japan. It took 800 shipwrights, 700 smiths, 3000 carpenters, and 45 days to complete. The crew was 180, a mix of Spanish, Portuguese, and mostly Japanese, in total.

First stop, New Spain aka Mexico. They arrived in 1614. Meanwhile in Japan, the shoguns and Emperor were cracking down on Jesuits. They’d been hanging around since 1549. The Japanese leaders had had enough and outlawed any Christian missionaries from entering Japan. Effectively, cutting off their trade relationships with the Portuguese and Dutch. The Jesuits present were forced to leave. This was the start of cutting ties with the West.

The Date Maru landed in Acapulco, New Spain. Shortly after they met with the local Spanish viceroy. It went well though there isn’t much information on what exactly was discussed. They stayed for a bit. The Date Maru left with a fleet of Spanish escorts but a tropical storm forced them to stay hunker down in Cuba until it passed.

On October 5, 1614, the fleet reached Sanlucar de Barra, Spain. Evidently, they loved Spain and stayed there for 8 months. The meeting with King Felipe III went swimmingly. To cement the deal to trade goods with Spain, Tsunenaga was baptized a Catholic by the Archbishop of Toledo. His godfather was the Duke of Lerna. Tsunenaga’s Christian name was Don Filippo Francisco Hasekura-Rokuemon. King Felipe and Tsunenaga bro-ed out for a while then he had to leave to meet the Pope. Before reaching Rome, they stopped in France and Italy shortly. Apparently, it wasn’t as fun Spain.

After taking in the Mediterranean coast, they finally met the pope. Just like with Felipe III, Pope Paul V loved him and agreed to send missionaries to Japan. The Pope loved him so much that Tsunenaga is made an honorary Roman and nobleman. Thus making him, the pope’s and the Vatican’s favorite samurai.

They returned to Spain ASAP. However, Felipe III had bad news. He found out that the emperor and shoguns outlawed Christian missionaries from entering Japan. The deal was off but they stayed in Spain for as long as they wanted. They hung out in Spain for a bit and eventually left.

The Date Maru left in July 1616. Once it landed in New Spain, a few samurai ran away. They didn’t stay quite as long before but still took their time to get back. Next stop, the Philippines for 2 more years. Then they finally return to Sendai with the news in 1620. So, this mission was a giant waste of time and money but Tsunenaga had a great 7-year vacation.

Tsunenaga died in 1622 from illness. His grave is unknown and 3 different graves are allegedly his.

Most of his life unknown except for this brief 7 years, where a local governor sent him on a mission to undermine the national government’s official policies. It failed completely but if you got a free ticket to Europe on “official” business wouldn’t you take your time too. This was almost completely forgotten by for 250 years, until the Japanese opened up their borders again to Westerners.

Sources

http://civitavecchia.co.uk/hasekura.html

http://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2014/03/12/arts/hasekura-tsunenagas-portrait-has-a-tale-to-tell/#.Vqd_kiorLIU

http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Hasekura_Tsunenaga

http://www.urasenke.or.jp/texte/world/e_mexico03/e_mexico03.html

http://www.idtg.org/archive/1164-hasekura-tsunenaga/

http://www.artsales.com/ARTistory/Xavier/Hasekura.html

http://www.city.sendai.jp/kyouiku/museum/syuuzou/hasekura/index.html

TSAREVNA SOPHIA ALEKSEYEVNA ROMANOVA: Peter the Great’s Lesser Known but Much More Interesting Sister

When most people think of the Russian Tsars the names that pop up are Ivan the Terrible, Peter the Great, Catherine the Great, and Nicholas II. Believe it or not, there were multiple female tsars. The first and arguably most influential of them being Tsarevna Sophia Alekseyevna.

Sophia in royal wear.

September 27, 1657 Tsar Alexis I aka Alexis the Quietest and Tsarina Maria Miloslavskaya introduced a baby girl to the Russian Kingdom. That girl was Sophia Alekseyevna Romanova. She had 12 siblings, most prominently among them were Feodor III, Marfa, and Ivan V. Sophia, like her several sisters were kept in their quarters for most of their childhoods. They were deemed too precious for the public to see. A red silk curtain was even put in place to obscure them from visitors. Both Feodor and Ivan were frequently ill. Ivan was born blind. Among the 13 kids, Sophia was the natural leader.

Sophia swiftly made a strong impression on her father. Like Ana Nzinga, her father allowed her to be educated. She was the only daughter that had any interest in education and was shown all the aspects of ruling a country from the Court to dealing with Nobles to diplomacy. Even though it was taboo, she convinced her father to let her get an education equal to her brothers. Since she was a woman, it was very unlikely that she’d become Tsar. I mean, c’mon that’ll never happen. The children were taught by the top notch teachers in Europe, Simeon Polotsky, Silvestre Medvedev, and Karion Istomin. Intelligent and clever, Sophia was fluent in French, Latin and Polish as well.

Her mother died in March 1669. Sophia was 11. It was expected that Alexis was going to remain unmarried but nope. In 1671, he married Natalya Naryshkina. She only had 3 children. Peter Alekseyevna (the Great), Fyodora Alekseyevna, and Natalya Alekseyevna (grew up to be a prominent playwright). Alexis died in 1676 leaving the throne empty. Next in line was Feodor III. No one was exactly excited about this given his routinely poor health. However, Sophia served as his key advisor. His reign was brief and unimpressive. He passed away on May 7, 1682.

Her brother Feodor III as Tsar

Feodor was married twice but had no children. This created a problem. Ivan was next in line but Peter wasn’t having it. Several Boyars (nobles) supported Peter where the military and specifically the Streltsy (royal guard) wanted Ivan. He was not a strong leader, sickly, and blind. Peter on the other hand was immediately a natural leader and politician. Sophia did not like her step mother or her step mother’s family, especially Peter. Sophia wanted Ivan on the throne. She had a plan but before it could get started, the Streltsy rebelled.

Several rumors were abound regarding the two tsarovichs-in-waiting. The Streltsy commander, Ivan Khavansky, caught word that Tsarovich Ivan was killed by the Naryshkinas. He gathered a mob of his men and marched to the palace where the boys were staying. Along the way ravaging Moscow. They demanded to see Ivan. The Boyars there, presented Ivan and Peter. The Streltsy were happy but still furious. Some of the Boyars at the Palace were calming them but then fellow Boyar, Mikhail Dolgorukiy, spoke up. He undid the cool down from his allies. The Streltsy grabbed Mikhail and lynched him. They stormed the palace killing any Naryshkina in sight. After the raid, Boyars had several military commanders executed. Amid the chaos, Sophia asserted her power. Instead of having one tsar, have two. Both boys were still too young to rule so she’d be the regent in charge. Not many were happy about this but it’ll do for now.

Immediately, she had a problem. The Streltsy that raided the palace went rogue. They were still dangerous. Ivan Khavansky moved his troops to a monastery outside of Moscow. Sophia caught word that he planned to kill the entire royal family. She sent troops after him. He surrendered on September 27, 1682. She ordered his execution. Everyone knew she was serious and in charge.

Khavansky was replaced by Fyodor Shaklovity, who was also one of her key advisers along with Vasili V. Golitsyn (he was also her lover). One of her goals was to modernize Russia on par with the rest of Europe, it was difficult but she made some progress. Some of her major achievements during her reign include shrinking the number of Streltsy in Moscow, reforming Serf law by allowing the capture of fugitive serves, allowing peasants to permanently move of the city (which angered the Boyars), commissioning the first higher learning institution in Russia. It was the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy. She also established several treaties instead of fighting wars. One of the treaties, the Treaty of Nerchinsk, was used to define the border between Russia and China.

Peter the Great, terrible half brother and person

Towards the end of her regency, she entered in an alliance with several other European nations to fight the Ottomans in the Crimea. This was a massive failure. By this point, Peter was of age to rule. Sophia was not married and had no children. Her only hope was Ivan but that was a lost cause. Peter fled Moscow, seemingly out of nowhere. While his half-sister was busy ruling a country, he was getting in the good graces with the Boyars. Sophia demanded that Peter report back to Moscow. He ignored her. She couldn’t order his execution, he was of royal blood. To make things worse the Boyars were going flocking to him. She lost supporters by the day. Sophia surrendered her title in 1689. She only ruled for 7 years.

Peter co-ruled with Ivan but he was really in charge. He couldn’t execute Sophia so he did the usual practice of sending her to a Convent. She wasn’t a nun but was held as a prisoner there. In 1698, a Streltsy unit tried to free her and restore her to power. This was a failure. Her sister Marfa helped in the rebellion and was sent to the Convent with Sophia. Sophia became a nun after this. She was kept in seclusion and seldom seen by anyone for the next few years.

Vasili, her lover and key adviser

Sophia died at the age of 46 on July 14, 1704. Peter the Great was an asshole. Unfortunately, she was portrayed as a fat, mean, old. stupid, hag. That was Peter’s propaganda but it’s still seen as valid by some. She was an intelligent, strong, clever woman that should have ruled longer than 7 years. She broke tradition, royal Russian women were supposed to just look pretty, stand in the background, and stay virgins unless married. A Russian scholar said, “They were born, lived, and died.” Peter is known for modernizing Russia but he picked up where Sophia left off. Again, Peter the Great was an asshole and shitty brother.

References

http://historyandotherthoughts.blogspot.com/2012/05/sophia-alekseyevna-of-russia.html

http://www.prlib.ru/en-us/History/Pages/Item.aspx?itemid=928

http://madmonarchist.blogspot.com/2012/01/royal-profile-tsarevna-sophia.html

http://russia-ic.com/people/general/r/541

http://www.self.gutenberg.org/articles/sophia_alekseyevna

http://www.prlib.ru/en-us/history/Pages/Item.aspx?itemid=542

Lincoln, W. Bruce. “Chapter 1-2.” The Romanovs: Autocrats of All the Russias. New York: Dial, 1981. N. pag. Print.

MONGOLIA UNDER BOGD KHAN: Two Revolutions for the Price of One

When it comes to the Mongolian history, most people stop at the death of Genghis Khan or if you’re a history nerd, the Golden Horde in Russia. However, the Mongolians have a deeply interesting and ignored history. This will cover a specified time in Mongolian history. In a short amount of time they went through two different revolutions, the Revolution of 1911 and Revolution of 1921, including a brief flirtation with a monarchy. This laid the path for what they would become in the 20^th century.

Before I start at 1911, I need to set a foundation. Mongolia was not independent pre-1911. It was a military protectorate under Imperial China for centuries. There were several races under Chinese control most prominently Mongols, Manchus, and Han. They more or less operated on its own since it was the furthest part of the empire. Mongolia was like the kid in the back of class that the teacher sometimes forgets is there. Mongolia was divided into two different protectorates, Outer Mongolia and Inner Mongolia. Outer is what we now know as Mongolia and Inner was right below it (Some is modern China and some is modern Mongolia). By the late 20^th century Imperial China was nearly at its end. The shadow of Russia was slowly but surely closing in.

Meanwhile in Europe Great Britain and Russia were in the midst of the Great Game. This was a battle of diplomatic dick size in Central Asia. Russia wanted to prove itself following their embarrassing defeat in the Crimean War. This included a series of treaties in the 1890s, one of which included recognizing Tibet as a part of China. The Russians had been moving into China via Outer Mongolia for a while by this point. They set up shop throughout the Mongolias. The Chinese didn’t like it but couldn’t do anything about it. Also numerous Chinese businesses had moved into Outer Mongolia. Now, this sounds good but it wasn’t. The Qing government reach barely touched Mongolia. It was a haven for businesses that didn’t have to follow the law. The Russians and Chinese were taking advantage of the local Mongol population. They used monasteries as trading depots. There were a lot of them given that 45% of the male population in Outer Mongolia were Buddhist monks. The Mongols didn’t have many natural resources aside from animal products, which weren’t worth a lot, and had no real foot in the door in the trade between China and Russia. This is only the beginning if Mongolia’s complicated relationship with Russia.

Mongolian Nobles with Russians

The Chinese saw this as a golden opportunity. The Mongols could only sell their goods for low prices. The Chinese sold their goods on credit. This went on for decades. By 1911, the Mongols had accumulated 15 million taels in debt to Chinese to traders. 1 tael is $653.31 in current American dollars. That means the total debt was $9,799,650,000. If divided between every household in Outer Mongolia, it’s 500 taels/$326,655 per home. This was only one of the problems that led to the Mongols revolting.

The Qing regime realized following their crushing defeat during the Boxer Rebellion that they have problems. It was too late stop the avalanche. A series of restrictions on its citizens were abolished. These included, allowing Mongols to speak to Chinese, allowing marriage between Chinese, Manchus, and Mongols, allowing Chinese to move their families in Mongolia (Outer and Inner), and Han (largest Chinese ethnic group) settlement in the Mongolias. Even though on the surface this appears good for Mongolia. It in fact made the situation worse. The racial tension between the Mongols, Han, and Manchus went from bad to worse. The Qing administration was so dedicated to this that they established the Department of Colonization in 1907. The purpose of it was to promote Han movement to the Mongolias and attempt to get the Russians and their allies out of Chinese territory. All the while, the Mongolians were still treated as second class citizens.

The Qing tried to force the Mongols to convert their land into villages and farms. This failed. The Mongolian land is much better for herding animals than growing crops. On top of this, the Qing tried again to build gold mines throughout the Mongolia. The Mongolians did not like this. It would ruin their land but no one cared and they tried it anyway.

Remember how the Qing administration wanted to remove all the Russians. This also didn’t go as planned. A Russian noble, Baron Von Grot, managed a Belarus-Russia company that attempted to build a gold mine in Outer Mongolia, in Tushiyetu Khan and Setsen Khan aimags (Mongolian province) to be specific. One year later in 1901, they ran out of money and abandoned the project. In 1906, Von Grot did the same thing again. He requested permission from the Qing this time. They said no but he did it anyways. He was backed by the Romanovs after all. The Chinese could only tax the gold mines and just let them do it regardless. In 1910, the Qing received 200,000 taels/$130,662,000 from these gold mines alone. That was only 10% of their total profits by that point. Again, no one cared about the Mongolians.

The groundwork for revolution was firmly planted in Mongolian soil. By this point, the Revolution of 1911 had ravaged through China and eventually reached Mongolia.

Decades before that though a baby boy was born in Tibet. The year was 1869. His father managed the finances of the Dali Lama. The boy’s name was Jivzundamba Agvaanluvsanchoijinyamdanzanvanchug. 5 years later, the family moved to Mongolia, where Jivzundamba spent his childhood. He also happened to be the 8^th reincarnation of Bogd Gegen or the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu (Mongolian for, “Mongolian Holy Precious Master”). This made him the Buddhist religious leader in Mongolia, Pope level prestige. He married Ekh Dagina in 1902. They had a son and adopted daughter. I’ll refer to the Mongolian Holy Precious Master as Bogd Khan from here on.

Queen Ekh Dagina with her daughter

Bogd Khan had the best education available. He was trained in many religious studies, and several languages. Apparently, his Mongolian was better than Tibetan. As word of revolution started to spread to Mongolia, it reached Bogd Khan. He started to publicly encourage the Mongolians to revolt. Mongolia wasn’t strong enough to break away from China so they need help. The closest nation that can help is Russia. You know one of the reasons they wanted to be revolt in the first place. Remember when I said their relationship with Russia is complicated.

By 1911, the Xinhai Revolution was raging in China. This led to Mongolia’s Revolution of 1911. The Empire was collapsing. This was the time. The top Khalka Khans (nobles) from the most powerful aimag; Tusheet Khan – Dashnyam, Zasagt Khan – Sonomravdan, Setsen Khan – Navaantseren, and Sain Khan – Namnansuren, along with Bogd Khan wrote and signed a letter seeking assistance from the Russians to separate from China. It would be impossible without them.

In the meantime when waiting for a response, there were several meetings throughout the year to figure out the semantics of becoming a separate nation. They did these under the cover of religious ceremonies for the Bogd Khan. By October 1911, they had formed the General Provisional Administrative Office for the Affairs of Khalka Khan or the GPAOAKK. The Russians replied, and…it…was…a…YES!

December 1, 1911, they sent a Declaration of Independence to the Manchu military governor.

December 29, 1911, Bogd Khan and Ekh Dagina are enthroned as the monarchs of Mongolia (This day is now their Independence Day aka Tusgaar Togtnoliin Udur). This wasn’t just a local issue for China, it was international news. The Frankfurter Zeitung (Frankfurt General Newspaper in English) on January 10, 1912 reported, “The Crisis in Mongolia has its origin in the failure of the last Chinese Emperors to conceal, driven by their political activities, their dissatisfaction with the Khutuktu, who is the religious leader of this nation. It was the Khutuktu who turned to the Russians. He just like the Dalai Lama of Tibet, led by the people who were discontented with Chinese sovereign rule…This second living Buddha, overconfident in himself, entertained unrealistic ideas. The Khutuktu is rather old and likes alcoholic drinks and other earthly pleasures that are unacceptable to his religion.”

A meeting leading up to their split from China

The Revolution of 1911 is a success.

The newly crowned king picked a cabinet of ministers. They were; Interior Minister – Da Lam Tserenchimed, Foreign Minister – Khanddorj, Finance Minister – Chagdarjav, Justice Minister – Namsrai. In July 1912, a Prime Minister was selected, Namnansuren. The initial goal was to eventually incorporate Inner Mongolia into their country. 38 out of 49 Mongolian banners (ethnic sub-group) were in support of independence. However, the Chinese were not gonna let these Mongols have their land.

Meanwhile in China, a republic was established. They wanted to get the band back together via the Republic of 5 Races. The Mongolians were not interested, they moved out last year. The Chinese tried to sweeten the pot several times and the Bogd Khan never bit. Later that year, on November 3, 1912, the Russian-Mongolian Agreement was signed. Russia was the first nation to formally recognize Mongolia as a fellow nation. The agreement also included a military alliance and military protection via the Russians.

Even though the Chinese said they were done with Mongolia. They did continuously threaten to send in troops but the threat of the Russians kept them away. This looks great. Mongolia is on its own and they have a buddy named Russia that will always be there to protect them but the Russians also recognized China’s rule over Mongolia. They also helped Mongolia a lot in the next few years.

On May 25, 1915, China finally recognized Mongolia as a nation.

The Mongolian military was a messy situation to put it lightly. Initially, it had 20,000 troops. The Bogd Khan didn’t want a military or have the money to support one for long. The Russians gave them 2,000,000 Rupees/$1,000,000 American Dollars (current) to build up a military. A Machine Gun company, 2 calvary regiments, and 4 gun battery of artillery were created because that’s what the Russians told them to do. 1,900 Russian soldiers and officers were sent as well to oversee the overhaul. They attempted to whip the army into shape. It didn’t work.

The Mongol soldiers thought the Russians were too cruel. Numerous soldiers deserted in response to the harsh training and treatment. The Russians tried again. They gave the Mongolian Army another 1,000,000 rupees along with a financial officer to see how they’d spend the money. After this failed the Russians backed out for a few reasons. By 1919, the army was a mere 2,000 troops. In 8 years it shrank by 90%.

The Russians backed out on the Mongolians because of something called the Bolshevik Revolution and more importantly their training wasn’t working. On top of that the Bogd Khan weren’t great rulers but they were liked by the people. The Chinese moved in and swiftly occupied Mongolia. In 1919, after 8 years Mongolia is a part of China again.

Ax Hero Himself

One soldier Sukhe Bator (“Ax Hero,” in Mongolian) decided to change this. He was a prominent and well-liked Mongolian soldier. He quickly moved through the ranks. He got together with other revolutionaries and established the Mongolian People’s Party. They fled to the Soviet Union for more training and support.

Sukhe Bator returned a few years later, in 1921, with Mongolian and Soviets soldiers. They fought back and swiftly fought their way through Mongolia. They reached Khiagt, Outer Mongolia on July 11, 1921. The Chinese gave up on Mongolia for the second and final time. This day is celebrated as their National Holiday. Khiaght became the new capital. The Revolution of 1921 is a success. They are a free nation again.

A new government was formed, the People’s Government of Mongolia. They are now a communist nation with a monarchical figurehead. The Bogd Khan had limited power but he still had influence. It was not fully communist yet. He was the last monarch to rule in Mongolia. The queen, Ekh Dagina, and national hero, Sukhe Bator, both died in 1923. Bogd Gegen died in 1924. They fully shifted to a communist state after his death.

Jivzundamba Agvaanluvsanchoijinyamdanzanvanchug aka Bogd Gegen ruled in one of Mongolia’s most interesting, turbulent, and defining eras, that is too often overlooked.

References

Act, The Movement In Mongolia After The 1911 Revolution Is Often Written Within The, Context Of The Mongolian Declaration Of Independence, But This Article Analyzes, and Various Reactions From Pro-Independence Forces And Constitutional Monarchy. The 1911 Revolution and “ Mongolia”: Independence, Constitutional Monarchy, or Republic (n.d.): n. pag. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

Ng. Chapter 18 The Mongolian National Revolution of 1911 and Bogdo Jebtsumdamba Khutuktu, the Last Monarch (n.d.): n. pag. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

“Warfare History Blog.” : Outer Mongolian Revolution: Tibetan-Buddhist Holy Warriors & the Asiatic Cavalry Division, 1919-1922. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

“Mongolia – Modern Mongolia, 1911-84.” Mongolia – Modern Mongolia, 1911-84. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Sept. 2015.

Kotkin, Stephen, and Bruce A. Elleman. Mongolia in the Twentieth Century: Landlocked Cosmopolitan. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1999. Print.

THE WALKER BROTHERS: 60 Years Before Jackie Robinson There Were The Walkers

Moses Fleetwood Walker (nicknamed Fleet) and Welday Wilburforce Walker are two of the first black professional baseball players in American history. Some of you reading this might be thinking, “The Walkers weren’t the first, you’re wrong. It was Jackie.” Those of you thinking that, aren’t completely wrong. The first black baseball player to play in the major leagues is not as clear as you’d think. The Walkers may or may not have been the first (depending on your criteria) but they are usually considered to be the first. There were other black players in the majors at the time including George Stovey, William Edward White, Bud Fowler, and Sol White.

William Edward White predates the Walkers by a few years though. William Edward White is recorded to have played only one game. It was on June 21, 1879. It was an athletic battle between the Providence Grays and the Cleveland Blues. White was a first baseman for Providence. Earlier that year, he was part of the Brown University championship baseball team.

White was born a slave in Georgia. His father was white and mother was mixed, black and white. She was a house slave and his father was her master. Will probably passed as white while in the North. On various censuses he was listed as black or white pending on the year and location. He was the first black player to a play in a major league game. Will does not appear to have played any more games besides this one. After this not much is known about him. Technically, he was first but only played one game Again, it depends on your criteria.

With that out of the way, the Walkers. Moses Fleetwood Walker was born October 7, 1856 in Mount Pleasant, Ohio. He was the 3^rd out of 6 or 7 children. Welday (Nicknamed Weldy) Wilburforce Walker was born July 27, 1860 in Steunbenville, Ohio. He was the 5^th or 6^th of 6 or 7 children. Not much is known about the family until 1870. Their father, Moses W. Walker was a doctor turned minister. He and Caroline O’Hara Walker had settled in Ohio as fugitive slaves along the Underground Railroad while on the way to Canada. They were both mixed race.

By the 1870s Baseball was sweeping the nation. Ohio was chock-full of Diamonds, bats and leather mitts. During this time the Walker children attended integrated schools. In 1877, their father became the pastor at Second Methodist Episcopal Church. Fleet and Weldy both graduated high school during these years.

At this point for the sake of clarity I’ll discuss the lives of Fleet and Weldy separately.

Weldy

He started attending Oberlin College in 1881, following his older brother Fleet. The sports department had no rules against blacks playing with whites. It was student ran as opposed to having the NCAA in place. Oberlin had integrated by this point. He played on the Oberlin Yeomans baseball team with Fleet for a season. After a momentous game against the University of Michigan in 1881. Fleet was recruited by U of Michigan and transferred there. Again, Weldy followed suit a few years later, by transferring to the Homeopathic Medical School at University of Michigan.

Just like Oberlin, seemingly no one cared they were black. Apparently the student body was surprised to learn their star players were black but that was the worst thing to him while there.  Weldy played together for a season there. Fleet left for the minor leagues but Weldy decided to stay. He continued his college career until spring 1884. He left school to play in the Majors with Fleet.

Weldy was a professional leftfielder for the Toledo Blue Stockings that summer. He made his major league debut July 15 versus the Philadelphia Athletics. He only played 3 or 4 more games that summer. His last major league game was August 6, 1884 against the Indianapolis Hoosiers. Both he and Fleet were kicked off the team at the end of the season, they never played in a game together with Toledo. Weldy did not follow brother again.

This marks the turning point for Weldy. He and a friend started a restaurant, the Delmonico Dining Rooms, in Mingo, Ohio. Much like his Major League baseball career it folded shortly after starting. After he sold the Dining Rooms, the Walker brothers managed the LaGrande Opera House in Cleveland, Ohio. This kept him afloat so he went back to baseball, it was the minors this time.

He played 3^rd baseman for the Excelsior Club in Cleveland briefly in 1886. This was followed by a brief stent in 1887 with the Ohio State League’s Akron Acorns. Later that year, moved to the Pittsburgh Keystones in the League of Colored Base Ball Players. That league folded after 2 weeks. He tried unsuccessfully again this and managed /played for the Keystone Base Ball Club of East Liverpool (still in Ohio, not that Liverpool) in 1888. By this point it was segregation was becoming more widespread in baseball. Weldy wasn’t having it.

He wrote an impassioned letter on racism within baseball to the Ohio State League but it led to nothing. His activist spirit never died and only grew as he got older. In 1886, he and a black friend walked into a ‘white’ roller rink to integrate it. They were refused service and sued. Weldy won that case.

Aside from baseball and owning several businesses throughout his life, he was very politically active. His primary focus was black issues. The color barrier went up officially in baseball after he and Fleet left sports. He was a strong supporter of the Back-to-Africa movement and worked as an agent for Liberian emigration. He strongly believed in racial separation and was also on the Executive Committee of the Negro Protective Party in Ohio.

He continued being active in the push for integration and black rights. Weldy made a living as a successful business owner by this point. In 1897, established a fish and oyster store. Shortly after this he started managing the Union Hotel until he died. Thomas, his nephew, helped him the entire time. During the Roaring 20’s he was a moderately successful bootlegger but was eventually caught and indicted.

On November 23, 1937 at 78, Weldy passed from influenza. He never married.

Moses aka ‘Fleet’

In 1877, a 20-year old Fleet started Preparatory Program at Oberlin College. A year later, he officially enrolled in the ‘classical and scientific course in the Department of Philosophy and Arts.’ His grades started great but once he joined the baseball team, they fell off. Initially, the only play was inter-play but they expanded to other schools shortly after. Fleet were the stars. His final game with Oberlin was against Michigan in 1881. The Oberlin Yeomans lost 9-2. U of Michigan offered him a spot on the team. Moses became the first Black athlete in University of Michigan’s history.

During the summer of 1881, he played semi-professional baseball for the White Sewing Machine Company of Cleveland. This led to the first of many instances that would follow Fleet during his athletic career. The day was August 21. The game was on the road in Louisville, KY. When Fleet took the diamond, things turned ugly. The audience wasn’t happy and the home team was furious. 2 of the Kentucky players, Fritz Pfeffer and Johnnie Reccius, refused to play with a black person on the field. Fleet played until the 2^nd inning and returned to the bullpen.

Baseball wasn’t the only reason, Fleet left Oberlin. While he was there, he met two women, Arabella Taylor and Ednah Mason. He was romantically involved with Arabella. She was pregnant around the time of the Michigan game. The Oberlin community wasn’t a great place for an unmarried pregnant woman. They packed up and moved to Michigan. In 1882, she had a daughter named Cleolinda. They had 2 more children, Thomas, in 1884, and George, in 1886.

Fleet played for the Wolverines for 2 years. In 1883, he left school to play in the minor league. He played catcher for the Toledo Blue Stockings. During his first year with the Blue Stockings he had a run in with Cap Anson. They met on the diamond on July 1883. Anson was a major player on and off the field. Everyone respected him and followed his lead. He was also a racist. He refused to play with Fleet on the field. Because of Anson he sat out for the game. A handful of years later, Anson (A Hall of Fame player) spearheaded the establishment of the color barrier in baseball. At this point, it was the Air Bud rule of, “There’s nothing in the rule book that says we can’t.” It just wasn’t a common practice at the time. There were several incidents like this during the season and his career.

A year later in 1884, they became a major league team. On May 1, 1884 against the Louisville Eclipse he played his first Major League game. Injury cut Fleet’s season shorter than expected. He did play 42 games and was cut from the team September 23, 1884. He became a Postman in the meantime.

Hope was not lost though, Fleet signed with the Western League’s Cleveland Team. He played all 18 games until that league folded. To support himself, he and Weldy ran the LaGrande Opera House together.

Over the next few years, he played on Newark Bears with George Stovey, and the Syracuse Stars. He was the last black player in the Minor Leagues or Major League in 1889. While with Newark, they played an exhibition game against Cap Anson…again. Stovey and Fleet sat the game out. His final day of his baseball career was August 23, 1889.

He held a variety of jobs after this. They include Postman (again), business owner, railroad clerk, author, and inventor. The family remained in Syracuse for a while. The 1890s were a rough time for Fleet. In 1891, Fleet was drinking at a bar when a group of white men were picked him as a target. They insulted him and things turned ugly. A brawl ended up breaking out. Fleet drew his knife and ended up stabbing one of the white men that caused the brawl. He died. In court, Fleet was surprisingly acquitted of murder by all-white jury.

The family stayed in Syracuse. Arabella died from cancer in 1895. A few years later married Ednah Mason, another Oberlin Alum. Both of his parents died by the end of decade. The finale to the 1890s was Fleet getting a felony charge for stealing mail. He spent a year in federal prison for a felony. After his release the family moved back to Steubenville.

He joined his brother in the fight for equality. They ran a newspaper that specialized in black issues, The Equator. He strongly backed the Back-To-Africa movement and racial separation. He helped run the Union Hotel too. Aside from politics, he ran another opera house. This one was in Cadiy, Ohio. In 1908, published a book titled, “Our Home Colony: A Treatise on the Past, Present, and Future of the Negro Race in America.” This was his dissatisfaction with the progress that was supposed to have happened by then. Fleet had 4 patents as well. 3 of them were improvements on film projectors and the other one was an improved explosive artillery shell.

He sold the Cadiy Opera House in 1920. Ednah died that year as well. He died from pneumonia May 11, 1924. His grave was left unmarked until 1991.

The Walker Brothers weren’t perfect. They played professional baseball but it wasn’t the right time. They weren’t just athletes. They were well spoken, educated, passionate, and strong people. The primary reason they’re overlooked is Jackie Robinson. He wasn’t the first but his story fits the mold of sports hero in a better, more complete way. Another reason is the Walkers’ politics. They strongly supported racial separation. The Civil Rights movement at that time is broken into 2 camps, Integration and Separation. The Integration side looks better in retrospect than the Separation side. This side may not resonate with people now as much as it does then. The Walkers’ Baseball is dead and mostly overlooked or ignored. Jackie’s Baseball is still very much alive. It’s a crime the Walker Brothers’ accomplishments and legacy are largely forgotten.

References:

http://www.baseball-reference.com/players/w/walkefl01.shtml

http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/history/mlb_negro_leagues_profile.jsp?player=walker_fleetwood

http://web.archive.org/web/20001023031241/http://www.pub.umich.edu/daily/1999/apr/04-20-99/sports/sports9.html

http://sabr.org/bioproj/person/9fc5f867

http://www.blackpast.org/aah/walker-moses-fleetwood-1857-1924

http://www.miamisci.org/youth/unity/Unity1/Kareem/pages/FleetWood.html

http://coe.k-state.edu/annex/nlbemuseum/history/players/walker.html

http://sabr.org/bioproj/person/08893f9f

http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1998-04-15/sports/9804150305_1_major-league-baseball-fleetwood-major-league-status

http://sabr.org/gamesproj/game/june-21-1879-cameo-william-edward-white

http://blackathlete.net/2008/06/cap-anson-and-the-color-line/

http://www.baseball-reference.com/players/w/walkewe01.shtml

http://articles.philly.com/2007-04-12/sports/24993709_1_black-freemen-black-teams-andrew-rube-foster

http://www.baseball-reference.com/minors/player.cgi?id=walker001wel

http://sabr.org/bioproj/person/8ff10f5c

http://sabr.org/bioproj/person/2f9d1227